A PRIORI The Brown Journal of Philosophy Volume 6 Brown University Department of Philosophy 2021 Editor-in-ChiefEric Choi ‘21 SeniorBen Zimmerman Managing Editor ‘23 A Priori: The Brown Journal of Philosophy is AnsonEditors Berns ‘23 Josiah Blackwell-Lipkind ‘21 made possible through the generosity of the Depart- Pahz Cherelin ‘24 ment of Philosophy at Brown University. The Journal Nico Gascon ‘23 Robin Hwang ‘23 would like to offer special thanks to Professor Paul Sophie Pollack-Milgate ‘23 Guyer, Katherine Scanga, and Elliot Negin ‘21 for their Adrian Oteiza ‘23 Ezequiel Vargas ‘22 indispensible contributions. Printed by IngramSpark [email protected] Copyright © by Eric Choi All rights reserved. This journal or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the editor-in-chief. A Priori A Priori Letter from the Editor Table of Contents Dear Reader, Social Explanation at the Macro and Micro Level: An Explanation of the Death of George Floyd 1 I once heard that Hegel wrote that philosophers are the civil James Ewing, Butler University ‘21 servants of humanity. I confess that like many others I find Philosophy it often (if not always!) difficult to understand what Hegel means, but after having read the papers for this year’s issue Truth on the Stand: I feel like I am a little closer to what Hegel was getting at. As I take it, philosophers are often in the business of producing Fragmented Consciousness crisis. They point out the problems that lie hidden in places & The Credible “Knower” 30 where we might not ordinarily take them to rest, sometimes Devon Bombassei, Emory University ‘21 much to our annoyance. We may want to swat away philos- Economics ophers like we might a gadfly when they do this, but then, we are forgetting what we stand to gain from them. They are Buberian Intersubjectivity and Racist Encounters 57 more than just gadflies, and here is Hegel’s insight. One of Kwesi Thomas, University of Toronto ‘21 the duties of the civil servants of humanity is the production Philosophy of crisis but another equally important duty is helping us deal with the crises they produce. Nietzsche and the Fulcrum of History 82 In the past few centuries or so, one crisis some philosophers Sean-Michael Pigéon, Yale University ‘21 sought to help us with was nihilism. Nowadays, in our age of History information, I believe another new (or perhaps old) crisis is that there are too many crises. We are confronted with too Perfectionism and Ableism 106 many problems to solve. How should we handle this deluge? Amanda Lopatin, Rice University ‘22 One way philosophers can help us here is to correct our Linguistics & Philosophy sights—to contextualize the problems of our day in a way that we can grapple with them. With the help of philosophers, I believe we can chart our way through the deluge. It is my Appeals to Reason 117 hope that this year’s issue will help to show that the next Gabriel Sánchez Ainsa, University of Chicago ‘22 Philosophy & Fundamentals: Issues and Texts generation of philosophers is indeed up to this task. Eric Choi, Editor-in-Chief iv v A Priori Social Explanation at the Macro and Micro Level Social Explanation at the Macro and Micro Level: An Explanation of the Death of George Floyd* James Ewing I. Introduction On May 25, 2020, George Floyd was killed by police officer Derek Chauvin in Minneapolis, Minnesota while being arrested for the alleged use of counterfeit bills. While it is clear that Chauvin’s actions were a cause of Floyd’s death, much emerging anti-racist discourse has attempted to explain the event by appealing to systemic and institutional racism. The question of how best to explain Floyd’s death is representative of a broader question in the philosophy of social science about when and how to cite “macro” or structural so- cial phenomena as causes of events which include in- dividuals.1 In this paper, I will use the case of George Floyd’s death to explore the relative merits of social ex- planation at the macro and micro levels. I will argue that macro level social explanation (without reduction to mi- crofoundations) is a legitimate form of explanation that should sometimes be preferred over micro level social explanation. In Floyd’s case specifically, the macro level vi 1 A Priori Social Explanation at the Macro and Micro Level of explanation is adequate and to be preferred because In other words, social scientists cannot explain social it can provide grounds for effective social intervention phenomena merely by appealing to dependencies rep- which might prevent similar occurrences in the future. resented by arrow 4 but must trace the entirety of Cole- man’s boat through the micro level (arrows 1, 2, and 3).5 For much of the last century, methodological individual- John Elster explains: ism has been the predominant account of explanation in the philosophy of social science.2 The methodolog- The elementary unit of social life is the individual hu- ical individualist’s conception of the relation between man action. To explain social institutions and social micro and macro levels is often represented by a figure change is to show how they arise as the result of in- called “Coleman’s boat.”3 dividual action and interaction. This view [is] often re- ferred to as methodological individualism.6 In economics, for example, many macro level claims are explained by referring to microfoundations. Take the macro claim that prospective tax cuts led to an in- crease in aggregate demand. Here, an economist might explain the economic shift by referring to changes in individual consumers’ expectations and behavior: after hearing about future tax cuts, individuals believed that they would have more money down the road, so they Fig I. Coleman’s boat (taken from Van Bouwel4) decided to consume more now; the sum of the individ- uals’ increase in consumption constituted an increase This figure suggests that macro social phenomena, in aggregate demand.7 So too, in explaining the death such as economic shifts in supply and demand, crime of George Floyd, a methodological individualist would rates, revolutions, and systemic racism, need to be ex- not stop at explaining Floyd’s death as the result of in- planatorily substantiated by the individual actors. These stitutional racism. Rather, they would identify the racist actors (and their intentions, behavior, and interactions) intentions and behavior of relevant members of the po- constitute and are responsible for these phenomena. lice force and examine the individual interactions which 2 3 A Priori Social Explanation at the Macro and Micro Level brought about his death.8 There are an innumerable number of circumstanc- es where a causal explanation of the death of George II. Criterion of Adequacy and Explanatory Charac- Floyd might be offered or required. We may hear it in a teristics coroner’s office, a court of law, a university, a state cap- There may be several genuine explanations for a given itol building, or in conversations between parent and explanandum.9 While I do not have the space here to child. In all of these circumstances, what constitutes an develop an account of genuine explanations, I will sup- adequate explanation will be different. For this reason, pose at least that (1) their explanans contain true prop- there are a variety of explanatory characteristics or di- ositions and (2) that these propositions are explana- mensions that could be required in different explanato- torily relevant to the explanandum. Of a set of genuine ry circumstances.11 explanations for a given explanandum, some may be more or less adequate depending on how well they In some circumstances, an adequate explanation will match the needs of the social context in which they are need to be one which is relatively accurate and pre- offered. In order to judge the social requirements of an cise.12 Other circumstances demand an explanation explanation, I will use a criterion of explanatory adequa- which is relatively idealized and abstract. The autopsy cy adopted from Jeroen Van Bouwel. Adequacy, for Van report on George Floyd, for example, needs to be a pre- Bouwel, is described briefly as the “relation to what the cise, detailed explanation of the physiological process- explained expects from the explanation addressing the es and mechanisms that were involved before, during, explanatory interest.”10 I will take it to measure how well and after his death. A police report, similarly, may need the explanation matches the explanatory circumstanc- to outline in detail the actions, interactions, conversa- es and whether it answers the explanation-seeking tions which took place during the event of his death, question appropriately. In this evaluation, explanations and perhaps relevant features of the environment. In and explanatory levels will be considered “adequate” these cases, it is not enough to simply say: “George or “inadequate,” even though adequacy may be better Floyd’s death was caused by Derek Chauvin’s knee understood as a matter of degrees. I use these all-or- pressing onto his neck.” However, this explanation may nothing terms to signify the significance of the relative be adequate in a court of law which is trying to deter- difference between more and less adequate explana- mine legal responsibility for Floyd’s death. In this situa- tions. tion, the explanation is adequate because it is sufficient 4 5 A Priori Social Explanation at the Macro and Micro Level to assign blame and punishment; more detail may be ture. But in order to facilitate this type of intervention, provided but may not be necessary.