THE GENERIC INTERTEXT OF PSALMS IN THE POETRY OF MARINA TSVETAEVA (1892-1941) Sarah Ossipow Cheang Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2008 Abstract This study investigates the presence of the genre of psalms in Tsvetaeva’s poetry by means of Alastaire Fowler’s theory of the historical persistence of literary genres throughout history. The main argument is that in her intertextual use of psalms Tsvetaeva develops further some of their typical features such as the expression of bafflement at God’s passivity or an over-familiarity in addressing God; although these features are already present in psalms, they are not given a full- blown realisation because of the religious restrictions reigning at the time and context in which they were composed. Chapter One presents the theoretical tools used in this research, namely the concomitant concepts of interextuality and genre: intertextuality focuses on how texts differ from one another, while genre theory highlights the resemblance existing between a set of texts. Taken together these concepts offer a balanced and multisided approach. Chapter Two presents the psalms and outlines its importance in Russian poetry. It also discusses Tsvetaeva’s spiritual outlook. Chapter Three demonstrates that the integration of the generic intertext of psalms into Tsvetaeva’s poetry results in the modification of their praying function: Tsvetaeva’s psalm-like praises to God contain a veiled expression of doubt that is absent from the praises of the Psalter; another change of the praying function of psalms performed in Tsvetaeva’s poetry consists in the implicit denunciation of the absence of a feminine voice in this genre. 2 Chapter Four shows that Tsvetaeva’s mixture of the psalmic intertext with the genres of diary-writing, epistolary writing and folk songs creates a fruitful interaction between the universal tone of the psalmist and the private concerns voiced in diary, letters or folk laments. Chapter Five shows that in her poetry Tsvetaeva develops further some typical features of psalms such as the theme of the sacred land and that of God’s passivity. 3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank sincerely all the people and institutions who supported, in one way or another, the completion of this doctoral thesis. The financial support granted by the School of Modern Languages and Cultures of the University of Nottingham allowed me to research, write and study in a way, which would not have been possible otherwise. The School also awarded me a travel prize, which gave me the opportunity to attend the annual Tsvetaeva conference in Moscow, an experience that proved to be greatly stimulating. I also thank the British Association for Slavonic and East European Studies which gracefully provided me with a grant for attending its 2004 annual conference where I received useful feedback on my work in progress. I would also like to genuinely thank all the staff of the Russian and Slavonic Department of Nottingham University, in particular Professor Cynthia Marsh for her helpful comments on my drafts and Professor Wendy Rosslyn, under the patient supervision of whom I learnt to ally enthusiasm with academic rigour. My gratitude also goes to all the people who contributed to make my visits to Moscow as fruitful as possible. In particular Iulia Mukhina for her hospitality, Margarita Odesskaia and Kirill Chekalov for their long-standing friendship, Kseniia Mel’nik from the Tsvetaeva museum in Bolshevo for her unwavering encouragement and Irina Beliakova from the Tsvetaeva museum in Moscow for her insightful comments on my reading of Tsvetaeva. Finally, I am particularly indebted to my family and friends for their optimism, patience and faith in me. A special mention should be made of Tuck, my husband, Ming, 4 my son and Zaria, my soon-to-be daughter for being such a source of happiness. I also express my gratitude to my parents from whom I inherited the love of literature. 5 Table of Content Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….7 Chapter One Aim and Method of the Present Study…………………………………………………………12 The Original Formulation of the Concept of Intertextuality and its Foundation in Bakhtin’s Thought……………………………………………………………………………...14 Kristeva’s Broadening of Bakhtin’s Thought…………………………………… ……………24 Genre Theory and its Relevance in Interpreting Tsvetaeva’s Work…………….. ……………33 Review of Critical Works on Tsvetaeva’s Use of Genres……………………….. …………...56 Review of Critical Works on Tsvetaeva and the Psalter………………………………………74 Generic Signals Indicating the Presence of a Psalmic Intertext in Tsvetaeva………………...99 Chapter Two The Genre of Psalms in the Bible………………………………………………………….. 102 The Psalter’s Characteristic Features……………………………………………. ………….104 Psalms of Individual Lament…………………………………………………………………106 Psalms of Praise………………………………………………………………………………110 Psalms of Thanksgiving………………………………………………………………………111 Parallelism as a Typical Feature of the Psalms………………………………….. ………….113 Imagery of the Psalms………………………………………………………………………..114 The Psalms’ Significance…………………………………………………………………….116 The Gender and the Genre of Psalms……………………………………………. ………….121 The Psalter in Russian Culture…………………………………………………… …………122 The Psalms in Russian Literature………………………………………………... ………….124 Tsvetaeva’s Outlook on Religion…………………………………………………………….146 A Brief Characterisation of Tsvetaeva’s Spirituality…………………………………………147 The Blasphemous Impulse of Tsvetaeva’s Poetry…………………………………………...159 Tsvetaeva’s Syncretism………………………………………………………………………173 Chapter Three: Change of Function of the Psalmic Intertext in Tsvetaeva’s Poetry ….178 The Modification of the Praising Function of the Psalmic Intertext in Tsvetaeva’s Poetry……………………………………………………………………………….................179 The Modification of the Complaint Function of the Psalmic Intertext in Tsvetaeva’s Poetry .202 Chapter Four: Generic Mixture……………………………………………………………..226 Tvsetaeva’s Integration of the Psalmic Intertext within the Broader Generic Framework of Diary Writing…………………………………………………………………………………..228 The Integration of the Psalmic Intertext into Tsvetaeva’s Epistolary Poetry………………….278 The Mixed Origin of Tsvetaeva’s Poetic Laments…………………………………………….295 General Conclusions on the Presence of Generic Mixture in Tsvetaeva’s Poetry…………….314 Chapter Five: Topical Invention…………………………………………………………….318 Topical Invention Consisting in Developing Further a Theme of the Original Genre: The Theme Of The Holy City………………………………………………………………………………318 Topical Invention on the Theme of God’s Passivity, the Motif of God’s Sleep and the Motif of Being Buried Alive……………………………………………………………………………..338 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...383 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………388 6 Introduction Over the last few decades, the poetic spell of Marina Tsvetaeva’s voice has fascinated readers and literary critics. The unique quality of Tsvetaeva’s writing was not missed by the poet Iosif Brodskii (1940-1996), who proclaimed her the best poet of the twentieth century. 1 Indeed, the richness and creativity of Tsvetaeva’s language together with her ability to coin startling formulae by associating highly paradoxical concepts have produce a wealth of issues worthy of scholarly investigation. Among them, Tsvetaeva’s use of intertextuality constitutes a particularly fertile ground. Eagerly absorbing many different artistic works from her early childhood, Tsvetaeva naturally reinterpreted them in her mature years. Thus, it is no wonder that both her poetry and prose are full of reminiscences of other texts, taken not only from the literary heritage but also from the musical or pictorial spheres. 2 However, the majority of Tsvetaeva’s references are directed toward other literary texts. In fact, the scope of her literary 1 http://www.ipmce.su/~tsvet/WIN/writer/brodsky/volk02.html Accessed August 2007. 2 Concerning the link between Tsvetaeva’s work and music, see: Elena Aizenshtein, Postroen na sozvuchiakh mir. Zvukovaia stikhiia Mariny Tsvetaevoi (St Petersburg: Neva, 2000); Dzhamila Kumukova, ‘Ideia “dukha muzyki” v estetike M. Tsvetaevoi i russkikh simvolistov’, Marina Tsvetaeva – epokha, kul’tura, sud’ba . Desiataia tsvetaevskaia mezhdunarodnaia konferentsia (9- 11 oktiabria 2001), edited by Irina Beliakova (Moscow: Dom-muzei Mariny Tsvetaevoi, 2003), pp. 61-6; Marie-Luise Bott, ‘Shubert v zhizni i poezii Mariny Tsvetaevoi’, Chuzhbina, rodina moia ’. XI Mezhdunarodnaia nauchno-tematicheskaia konferentsiia (9-10 oktiabria 2003), edited by Irina Beliakova (Moscow: Dom-muzei Mariny Tsvetaevoi, 2004), pp. 212-38. Concerning the link between Tsvetaeva’s creation and the visual arts, see: Nina Osipova, ‘“Tantseval’naia” poetika M.I. Tsvetaevoi v khudozhestvennom kontekste Serebrianogo veka’, Marina Tsvetaeva v XXI veke XV and XVI Tsvetaevskie chteniia v Bolsheve (Moscow – Bolshevo: Strategiia, Muzei M.I. Tsvetaevoi v Bolsheve, 2005), pp. 236-47; Nina Osipova, ‘“Poema vozdukha” M.I. Tsvetaevoi kak suprematicheskaia kompozitsiia’, Marina Tsvetaeva – epokha, kul’tura, sud’ba , pp. 49-60. 7 culture stretches from the Greek Antiquity to modernist poetry. This multitude of texts crossing over in Tsvetaeva’s writing helps the poet’s endeavour to create a multifarious artistic universe reflecting the complexity of her inner world. Among the conflicting impulses expressed in Tsvetaeva’s poetry, the issue of faith and atheism is particularly remarkable and that is why the specificity of Tsvetaeva’s work is well characterised by a reversal of Pushkin’s famous line from his