Margarita Dimova cover photography © Yasuyoshi Chiba, AFP Chiba, Yasuyoshi © photography cover “Your battles inspired me - not the obvious material battles but those that were fought and won behind your forehead.” ~ James Joyce BULLETS BEYOND BALLOTS Re-Examining the 2007-2008 Post-Election Violence through Longer-Standing Youth Mobilisation Patterns in the Slum Area of Kibera, Nairobi Margarita Dimova Student #3441164 Utrecht University 13 August 2010 A Thesis submitted to the Board of Examiners in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts in Conflict Studies and Human Rights Supervisor: Prof. Mario Fumerton Date of Submission: 13 August 2010 Programme trajectory: One Elective – 7.5 ECTS (2000900369 Intensive Programme in Cosmopolitanism and Conflict, Centre for Humanities, Utrecht University) & Research & Thesis Writing – 22.5 ECTS (including two and a half months of fieldwork in Nairobi, Kenya) Word count: 19,696 ABSTRACT Whereas the recent episode of post-election turmoil in Kenya is most commonly framed as politically-mobilised interethnic violence, this thesis seeks to provide an alternative interpretation. By addressing localised processes of violent micro-mobilisation in the Kibera slum of Nairobi, the analysis goes beyond elite-based examinations of political fragmentation and institutional failure. Focusing on longer-standing patterns of everyday street organisation activity reveals the political-criminal violence nexus, as well as the local socio-economic and historical roots of the Kenyan crisis. Both post-election and everyday violence are examined at the grassroots level, as seen by perpetrators or witnesses, with the resulting conclusions based on indigenous conceptualisation. The crux of the argument is that beneath superficial explanations of “tribalism,” the 2007/2008 unrest presents an attempt on the part of Kibera youth to overcome, protest, or navigate multi-level insecurity and persisting social injustices through violence. Micro-level findings (livelihood strategies, motivations) are put in relational perspective (political elites, other societal groups), and analysed against the backdrop of the macro context (political economy, globalisation). Key words: violence, Kibera, post-election, gangs, youth, insecurity, marginalisation, livelihood strategy My deepest gratitude to Johan for showing me in, to Ochi for letting me roam, and to Mario for leading with insight and understanding. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................ 1 Introduction (introspection) .................................................................................................................... 2 The clash of interpretations .................................................................................................................. 4 Media ................................................................................................................................................... 4 Academia ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Core research puzzle ............................................................................................................................. 6 Conceptual breakdown and analytical framework ........................................................................... 7 The political ........................................................................................................................................ 8 The socio-economic ............................................................................................................................ 8 The cultural/historical ...................................................................................................................... 9 Methodological strategy ...................................................................................................................... 10 Sampling ........................................................................................................................................... 10 Location ............................................................................................................................................. 10 Data collection techniques .............................................................................................................. 11 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 13 Chapter overview ................................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter I: Formation .............................................................................................................................. 15 Ghetto biodiversity .............................................................................................................................. 16 Vigilantes ........................................................................................................................................... 17 Criminal gangs ................................................................................................................................. 17 Youth-wingers .................................................................................................................................. 18 Metamorphosis and mobilisation of street organisations .............................................................. 19 Street organisations and the 2007 flare-up ....................................................................................... 21 Chapter II: Incitement ............................................................................................................................ 23 The role of conflict entrepreneurs ...................................................................................................... 24 A meticulous plan: recruiting private militias or ‘hustling’ youth? ......................................... 24 Populism: fuelling the fire with words ......................................................................................... 25 Flawed elections: a potent catalyst ................................................................................................ 26 The role of political culture ................................................................................................................. 27 Historical continuities ..................................................................................................................... 27 Two vignettes ................................................................................................................................... 27 The role of negative ethnicity ............................................................................................................. 28 Chapter III: Navigation .......................................................................................................................... 31 Structural imperatives ......................................................................................................................... 32 “Unequal life chances” .................................................................................................................... 32 “Too much empty pocket” ............................................................................................................. 33 Land issues ........................................................................................................................................ 34 Inadequate policing ......................................................................................................................... 35 Bringing agency back........................................................................................................................... 36 Livelihood strategies ....................................................................................................................... 37 Primary commodity goods ............................................................................................................. 38 Chapter IV: Meaning .............................................................................................................................. 40 Performative violence .......................................................................................................................... 41 Violent rituals ................................................................................................................................... 42 Social identification .............................................................................................................................. 43 Being someone in the “global city” ............................................................................................... 44 Conclusion (outrospection) ................................................................................................................... 46 Findings ................................................................................................................................................. 48 Contributing to the debate... ..............................................................................................................