QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN THE STUDY OF LEADERSHIP KARIN KLENKE Leadership Development Institute (LDI), U.S.A. United Kingdom - North America - Japan India - Malaysia - China Contents vii CONTENTS Preface xv Foreword xxi PART I: FOUNDATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1 1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AS PARADIGM 3 Introduction 3 Leadership Research: Past Traditions and Current Trends , 3 What is Qualitative Research? 6 Defining Qualitative Research 7 Characteristics of Qualitative Research 10 Strengths of Qualitative Methods 12 Qualitative Research as Paradigm 12 Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Qualitative Paradigms 14 Ontology 15 Epistemology 16 Axiology '. 17 Methodology 18 Major Research Paradigms in Qualitative Research 19 Constructivism 21 Interpretivism 22 Symbolic Interactionism 25 Pragmatism 26 Summary 29 2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AS METHOD 31 Introduction 31 Qualitative Research as Method 32 Quality Standards in Qualitative Research 36 Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 37 Strategies for Enhancing Quality and Rigor in Qualitative Research 41 The Quantitative-Qualitative Debate: One More Time 44 The Role of Ethics in Qualitative Research 49 Summary 52 viii Contents •' PART II: MAJOR QUALITATIVE TRADITIONS IN LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 55 3 CASE STUDIES IN LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 57 An Illustrative Leadership Case Study 57 Introduction to Case Study Research 58 Case Study Defined 59 Role of Theory in Cases Studies 60 The Architecture of a Leadership Case Study 62 Case Study as Method of Choice 63 Selecting Cases: Single and Multiple Case Studies 64 Data Collection and Analysis in Case Study Research 66 Data Collection Methods 66 Data Analysis Techniques 66 Interpreting the Findings of Case Study Research 69 Quality Assessments in Case Studies 69 Selected Case Studies in Leadership Research 72 Leadership Theory in Case Studies 79 Summary 84 4 CONTENT ANALYSIS IN LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 87 An Illustrative Leadership Content Analysis Study 87 Introduction 89 Defining Content Analysis 89 Designing a Content Analysis Study 90 Content Analysis Procedures 90 Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Coding 92 Types of Coding .' 93 Data Collection and Analysis 96 Use of Software in Content Analysis. 98 Quality Criteria and Validation Issues 99 Intercoder Agreement in Content Analysis 99 Measuring intercoder reliability 100 Validity in Content Analysis 103 Examples of Content Analysis in Leadership Research 104 Summary 114 5 QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWING IN LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 117 An Illustrative Qualitative Interviewing Leadership Study 117 Introduction 119 Defining Interviews 119 Types of Interviews and Interview Questions 121 Structured Interviewing 122 Unstructured Interviewing 125 Semistructured Interviewing 126 Role of the interviewer in in-depth interviewing 130 Contents ix Focus Group Interviews 131 Telephone Interviewing 133 Internet Interviews 134 Virtual Focus Groups Interviews 135 Data Collection and Analysis 136 Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Interviews 138 Applications of Qualitative Interviewing Studies in Leadership Research 139 Ethical Consideration in Qualitative Interviewing 149 Summary 150 6 MIXED METHODS IN LEADERSHIP RESEARCH 153 An Illustrative Mixed Methods Leadership Study 153 Introduction 155 Mixed Methods Design Consideration 156 Defining Mixed Methods Research 156 Types of Multimethod Designs 159 Selection of Empirical Studies Employing Mixed Methods Design 160 Data Collection and Analysis 160 Applications Of Leadership Studies Combining Different Qualitative Methods (Within Qualitative Mixed Methods Studies) 161 Applications of Leadership Studies Combining Qualitative Methods and Quantitative Methods (Between Mixed Methods Designs) 170 Summary 181 PART III: UNDERUTILIZED QUALITATIVE METHODS IN LEADERSHIP STUDIES 183 7 GROUNDED THEORY, ETHNOGRAPHY, AND HISTORIOMETRY 185 Grounded Theory '. 185 An Illustrative Grounded Theory Leadership Study 185 Introduction to Grounded Theory 186 Data Collection and Analysis in Grounded Theory 188 Category development in grounded theory 189 Quality and Rigor in Grounded Theory 192 Applications of Grounded Theory in Leadership Research 193 Summary '. 197 Ethnography 198 An Illustrative Ethnographic Leadership Study 198 Introduction to Ethnography 200 Defining ethnography 200 Types of ethnographic studies 201 Data Collection and Analytic Processes in Ethnography 203 Data collection 203 Data analysis and interpretation 204 Strengths and weaknesses of the ethnographic method 205 Applications of Ethnography in Leadership Research 205 x Contents Historiometry 213 An Illustrative Historiometric Leadership Study 213 Defining Historiometry 213 Data Collection and Analysis in Historiometry 214 Applications of Historiometry in Leadership Research 214 Summary 218 8 PHENOMENOLOGY AND NARRATIVE ANALYSIS 221 An Illustrative Phenomenological Leadership Study 221 Introduction to Phenomenology 222 Defining Phenomenology 222 A Brief History of Phenomenology: Husserl, Heidegger, and Gadamer 223 Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation ...226 Bracketing and phenomenological reduction 228 Delineating units of meaning 228 Clustering of units of meaning to form themes 229 Summarizing, validating, and modifying each interview 229 General and unique themes for all interviews and composite summary 229 Validity and Quality in Phenomenology 231 Applications of Phenomenology in Leadership Research 232 Summary 238 Narrative Analysis 239 An Illustrative Narrative Analysis in the Study of Leadership 239 Introduction To Narrative Analysis 240 What is Narrative? 242 Data Collection and Analysis in Narrative Inquiry 246 Quality Criteria _..246 Applications of Narrative Analysis in Leadership Research 247 Summary 254 9 BEYOND WORDS: SIGHTS AND SOUNDS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 257 Introduction 257 Defining Image-Based Research 260 Leadership, Aesthetics, and Art 261 Image-Based Leadership Research 263 The Aesthetics of Leadership 264 Image-Based Research as an Emergent Methodology 266 Image-Based Sources of Data 268 Analyzing Visual Data 269 Content Analysis of Visual Data 271 Iconography 272 Quality Issues in Image-Based 274 Alternatives to Validity and Quality Standards in Image-Based Research 276 Examples of Arts-Based Research 280 Summary 285 Contents xi PART IV: EMPIRICAL QUALITATIVE LEADERSHIP STUDIES 287 10 CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE WRITINGS OF MARY PARKER FOLLETT 289 Overview of the Study 289 Approach to the Text 290 Initial Questions 291 Collecting, Exploring, and Analyzing the Data 291 Data Collection Process 291 The Seven Text Sample/Hermeneutic Unit 291 Locating and Securing the Texts 293 New Questions That Shaped Approach to Text 294 Mining for Gold 295 Phase One: Word Crunching 295 Phase Two: Autocoding 299 Phase Three: Coding Line-by-Line 299 Code worthiness 300 Phase Four: A Necessary Pause 301 Phase Five: Hand Coding 302 Phase Six: Code Comparisons Between Atlas/ti and Hand Coding 304 Phase Seven: Returning to Atlas/ti 307 A Folletian Framework for Understanding Leadership 308 Tracing Leader, Leaders, Leadership Across PDs 308 Leader and leaders 310 Leadership 311 Implications for Contemporary Leadership Theory 312 Hope and Optimism : 312 Shared Leadership/Team Leadership 313 We-Power and Empowerment 313 Followership 314 Invisible Leader 315 Summary 316 11 CALLING AND LEADER IDENTITY: UTILIZING NARRATIVE ANALYSIS TO CONSTRUCT A STAGE MODEL OF CALLING DEVELOPMENT 317 Introduction and Theoretical Background 317 The Development of Calling in the Management Literature 318 Empirical Research on Calling and Related Constructs 318 Relating Calling to Identity 319 Narrative Theories of Identity Development 320 Narrative Identity and Leadership 321 Research Design 322 Interview Protocol 322 Findings 324 Themes—Individual Level 325 Themes—Universal 325 xii Contents Stage 1: precall antecedents—awaiting 325 Stage 2: Recognition of the call through spiritual awakening and involvement—awakening 326 Stage 3: Realization of the call through experience, mentoring, and/or preparation for vocational service—actualizing 326 Stage 4: Struggle to separate from previous roles and identities/dealing with precall stage issues-anguishing 327 Stage 5: Identity integration and role merger of faith and work/subsequent wrestling with preferred roles/possible selves—acceptance 328 Calling Narratives—Three Prototypes 329 Type I calling narrative 331 Type II and type III calling narratives 331 A General Psychological Structure of Calling and Leader Identity Formation 332 The Impact of the Childhood and Early Adult Years 332 Awakening to the Call 333 Interpersonal and Identity Conflict 333 Interpersonal Conflict and Resolution 334 Identity Conflict and Resolution 334 Identity Integration and Role Merger of Faith 334 Discussion 335 Conclusion 338 12 LEADERSHIP IN AT-RISK COMMUNITIES 341 Introduction 341 Myles Horton: An Exemplary Leader in At-Risk Communities 342 The Role of Context in Leadership 343 At-Risk Communities as a Context for Leadership 344 Research Design 346 Data Sources for the Study 346 Results of Content Analysis and Case Study 347 Phase 1—Content Analysis Coding 347 Phase 2—Case Study Coding 351 Content Analysis and Case Study Convergence of Findings 352 Discussion : 354 Level 3 S-Codes 354 Level 4 P-Codes: a Grounded Theory of Leadership in At-Risk Communities 356 Communal residence 356 Radical subordination 357 Responsibility 358 Reconciliation 359 Reframing 360 Restoration of people and community 361 Replacement 362 Level 5 Worldview—Horton's Foundational Concepts 362 A Model of Leadership in At-Risk Communities 363 Summary 364 Contents xiii 13 EPILOGUE 367 Contributions to the Study of Leadership 368 The Debate over Methods 369 Underutilization of Methods 372 The Future of Qualitative Research in the Study of Leadership: Challenges and Opportunities 378 Summary 384 References 387 About the Authors 449 Index 451.