The Dying Gaul: Examining the Inverse Relationship between Lay and Religious Masculinities in Merovingian Gaul, 450-750 by Peter Henric Johnsson A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Centre of Medieval Studies University of Toronto © Copyright by Peter Johnsson « Year of Convocation» The Dying Gaul Peter Johnsson Doctor of Philosophy Centre of Medieval Studies University of Toronto 2020 Abstract This dissertation examines the interrelation between concepts of masculinity among the laity and the clergy in the Merovingian era of Gaul, fifth to seventh centuries. In doing so, the work aims to fill a gap in current scholarship by examining the relationship between religious men and lay men, rather than as separate groups, which has often been the trend to date. The focus is on specific sites of difference where masculine ideals came into conflict. Beginning with a brief examination of the transmission of classical neo-platonic ideals into the culture of the ecclesiastical aristocracy of the fifth century, I will provide a background for the religious masculinity against which the lay examples are framed. The study then moves on to the contrasting ideals surrounding hair, using a methodological framework of contrasting masculinities to demonstrate that the long hair of the Franks and the tonsuring of the clergy both reflected antithetical representations of each others’ masculinities. Chapter four examines the relationship between feasting and fasting culture among the laity and the clergy, as the participation in, and rejection of imbibing served to distinguish both groups of men through contrasting ideals. The following chapter examines the role that sexual conduct played in notions of honour particularly in the laity. The final chapter examines the different concepts of fatherhood and the importance of male children in maintaining a masculine role. The concluding ii chapter then offers some considerations on how the balance between masculinities was altered duing the Carolingian Renaissance. iii Acknowledgments My love of history was a cherished gift I received from my grandfather Erland, without his colourful stories and insight I would not have realized this calling and strived so hard to make him proud, so my first thanks goes to him. Furthermore, I would like to thank all those who have always encouraged me to pursue my dreams. I have also been blessed to have had my indefatigable partner Alex Bauer with me along for this journey, offering her help and support as well as long nights of editing. Without her none of this would have been possible and for that she will always have my thanks and heart. I would also like to thank my committee whose invaluable help and support helped me develop my ideas. Professor Jacqueline Murray’s groundwork in this field was indispensable, and she was a great force for challenging me to go further with my ideas. Professor Jill Ross’ personal support, and insightful comments and guidance helped shape and hone the arguments even from their roughest starting points. And finally, I can not thank Professor Alexander Murray enough for his encyclopedic knowledge which always kept me on track and grounded. I would also like to thank the faculty and staff of the Centre for Medieval Studies, who welcomed me and supported me through this process. I have an unending amount of gratitude to all my friends and family who helped me through this process and never lost faith in me, Abigail, Roz, Lochin, and Tia. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................v Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................... viii Appendices ..................................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1 Studying Masculinities in the Early Middle Ages ..........................................................1 1.1 Introduction: The Dying Gaul Analogy ...............................................................................1 1.2 Historiography of Identity in the Early Middle Ages ..........................................................5 1.3 Historiography of Gender in the Early Middle Ages .........................................................10 1.4 Historiography of Masculinities in the Early Middle Ages. ..............................................13 1.5 Methodology ......................................................................................................................17 1.6 Outline of Research............................................................................................................24 Chapter 2 From Virtus to Virtue: The Classical Inheritance of Religious Masculinity.................27 2.1 Introduction: Multiple Masculintities in the Early Medieval Period .................................27 2.2 Classical Roman Masculinity ............................................................................................33 2.3 The Rise of the Aristocratic Bishop ...................................................................................40 2.4 Ascetic Masculinity ...........................................................................................................43 2.5 Conclusion: The Religious Masculinity of the Early Middle Ages ...................................48 Chapter 3 Shedding the Locks of Worldly Existence: The Inverse Relationship between Long Hair and Tonsure .............................................................................................................51 3.1 Introduction: The Function of Hair as a Discursive Medium ............................................51 3.2 The Importance of Merovingian Royal Hair .....................................................................57 3.3 The Grammar of Hair in the Ancient World ......................................................................59 3.4 Classical Medical Traditions of Hair .................................................................................60 3.5 The Moral Distinction of Hair ...........................................................................................62 v 3.6 Hair as Emotional Capital ..................................................................................................65 3.7 The Tonsure .......................................................................................................................70 3.8 Conclusion: Hair as a Sign of Difference ..........................................................................79 Chapter 4 Addicted to Bacchus: The Inverse Relationship between Feasting and Fasting ..........82 4.1 Introduction: Religious Views on Feasting........................................................................82 4.2 Using Caesarius’ Sermons as a Source ..............................................................................86 4.3 The Rise of Fasting in Late Antiquity................................................................................88 4.4 Caesarius of Arles and Drinking Culture ...........................................................................91 4.5 Lay Drinking Competitions ...............................................................................................96 4.6 The Gendered Symbolism of Drinking ............................................................................100 4.7 Conclusion: Feasting/Fasting as Sites of Conflict ...........................................................105 Chapter 5 Foxes and Hares: Locating a Frankish Economy of Sexual Honour and Shame through Insult Legislation .......................................................................................................108 5.1 Introduction: The Absence of Frankish honour? .............................................................108 5.2 The Existence of Frankish honour ...................................................................................112 5.3 Insults as a Means for Examining Honour .......................................................................114 5.4 Christian Reversal of Pride and Shame ...........................................................................119 5.5 De conviciis: The Insult Laws in the Pactus Legis Salicae .............................................121 5.6 Defensible Insults in the PLS ...........................................................................................126 5.7 Indefensible Insults in the PLS ........................................................................................128 5.8 Conclusion: Frankish Sexual Honour ..............................................................................135 Chapter 6 Pater Publicus: The Role of Fatherhood in the Merovingian Royal Family .............138 6.1 Introduction: Studying Fatherhood ..................................................................................138 6.2 Classical Concepts of Fatherhood: Between Potestas and Pietas ...................................142 6.3 Christian Models of Fatherhood: Redefining the Familia ...............................................147 vi 6.4 Lay Reactions to Sons’ Rejection of Kinship Ties ..........................................................151