THE UNCONVENTIONAL WOMAN SAINT: IMAGES OF AKKA MAHADEVI JAN PETER SCHOUTEN Hinduism is characterized by a strong tendency to ascetJ.c1sm and world renunciation. From the oldest period of Indian religious history, the Vedic age, up to the present day, sages and mendicants have pursued spiritual enlightenment by means of severe ascetic practices. It has never been an unusual choice to devote one's entire life to the study and practice of yoga and other spiritual efforts. Hindu ethics even recommended that all members of the ritually pure castes should take up a hermit's existence at least in the last stage of life. And the most revered character in Indian civilization was not the ruler, the teacher, or the priest, but the ascetic. Such asceticism has always been largely a male affair. There are, however, a number of women who became known by their devotional and ascetic career. Especially in the bhakti tradition, the popular devotional movements of the Middle Ages, we meet with several famous women mystics who were accomplished in ascetic practices. The first is probably Kiiraikkiil Ammaiyiir, a poetess from the sixth century who composed devotional songs in praise of Siva in the Tamil language. Images represent her in an emaciated condition because of her severe austerities. The last and best-known of the women saints in the bhakti tradition is Mirabai, who lived in Rajasthan in the sixteenth century. She rejected married life in favour of a devotional bond with ~~i:ia and her poems reflect a passionate love for her divine bridegroom. The choice for a mystical life, made by the women saints, has not remained unquestioned. For many contemporaries, it was dubious whether women were entitled to tread the ascetic path. Rejection of the normal pattern, including marriage and household duties, was met with surprise or even hostility. For later generations, the stories of such women saints were highly ambivalent. Their devotional zeal and spiritual achievements were generally admired; but their unconventional way of life was not regarded as an example to be followed. This is especially true in the case of the female ascetic who is the subject of this article: Akka Mahadevi. She combines the practice of bodily mortification, after the example of Kiiraikkiil, and the tender love relationship with the godhead, for which Miriibai would become famous,-and both in a radical way. Akka Mahadevi lived in the second half of the twelfth century. Contemporary sources for her biography are her own writings, consisting of 430 short poems and one long poetical composition; and a few texts of fellow­ devotees which refer to her. The hagiographical works from the following 124 JAN PETER SCHOUTEN centuries do not provide much reliable information since they are heavily coloured by pious phantasy. Nevertheless, the scarce material allows some conclusions about her personality, the type of her devotion, and the main events in her life. It is very interesting to compare these findings with some later descriptions of Mahiidevi' s devotional development. This will give some idea of the appreciation of such a controversial figure in other periods in the history of Hinduism. Very influential was the fifteenth century's composition Siinyasaf!Lpiidane, in which one chapter is devoted exclusively to Mahiidevi. Recently, a novel about her was published, which offers a remarkable modem picture of the medieval mystic. Both works will be discussed in this article. Some Conclusions from the Contemporary Sources Akka Mahiidevi belonged to the Virasaiva movement1 . This devotional mass movement in the Kanna<;Ia speaking regions reached its zenith around the year 1165. The founder was Basava, the king's treasurer at the court of KalyiiJ:ia. Basava attracted large masses of devotees who shared his intense devotion for the god Siva as well as his revolutionary social ideals. The city of KalyiiJ:ia became the experimental field for a new type of society, in which people from different backgrounds lived together as equals. Even people from the despised low castes were welcome in the community. Men and women alike played their parts in the development of spirituality and community life. Because of their devotional zeal, the adherents of the movement called themselves Virasaivas, i.e. heroic followers of Siva. The worship of the god, however, was not practised in the customary form: by offering to an image in a temple. Basava completely rejected the traditional cult, including temples, images, priests, and holy scriptures. Instead, the Virasaivas worshipped a small abstract symbol of Siva: the linga. This little stone in its black coating was worn by every member of the community. For adoration and meditation, it was placed on the left hand. No official priesthood or texts in the holy Sanskrit language were needed for this worship. Likewise, the traditional scriptures were disregarded. Instead of these holy books, which had to be 1 Studies about Virasaivism: J.P. Schouten, Revolution of the Mystics: On the Social Aspects of Virasaivism, Kampen 1991; A.K. Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva, Harmondsworth 1973; H. Thipperudra Swamy, The Virasaiva Saints: A Study, Mysore 1968. About Akka Mahadevi: D. Kinsley, 'Devotion as an Alternative to Marriage in the Lives of Some Hindu Women Devotees', in: J. Lele (ed.), Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Movements, Leiden 1981, 83-93; R.B. Michael, 'Women of the Siinyasaqipadane: Housewives and Saints in Y-lfllSaivism', Journal of the American Oriental Society 103 (1983), 361-368; S. Puranik, Mahiidivi, (Virashaiva literature translation Series, 2), Dharwad 1986; A.K. Ramanujan, 'The Kannada Vacanas of Mahadeviyakka: Love as Metaphor', in: E.C. Dimock e.a., The Literatures of India: An Introduction, Chicago & London 1974, 165-170; H.T. Sasnur, 'Akka Mahadevi', in: Studies in Education and Culture: In Honour of Shri D.C. Pavate, Bangalore 1959, 373-379; S. Shintri, Akka Mahadevi, Sirigere 1983; id., 'A Mystic's Message: An Interpretation of Akka Mahadevi's Life', Journal of the Karnatak University - Humanities 20 (1976), 61-67. .