INGO SCHÄFER NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, PHYSICS AND METAPHYSICS IN THE DISCOURSE OF TAN SITONG: THE CONCEPTS OF QI AND YITAI Tan Sitong ʊ (1864–1898) is well known as one of the six reformers who died after the failure of the ‘Hundred Days Reform’ in 1898 by the sword of the executioner. Furthermore he is known as the author of the politico-philosophical treatise Renxue (A study on ren). Perhaps less known is the fact that he advocated political reform only during the last four years of his life. Tan himself describes this change as a kind of incision that was not restricted to the field of polit- ical ideas but was also reflected in his philosophical thought: After the thirtieth year of my life I began my new studies; this sudden change ripped up the former and the latter as if I were two different per- sons.1 I will examine how this incision is reflected in Tan’s explication of the phenomena of nature. The problems will be centered on the rela- tionship between the concept of qi in Tan’s ‘old studies’ and the concept of yitai in the Renxue and the “Yitai shuo” Ȥ (On yitai ). 1. QI, THE ‘GENERATING FORCES’, AND A ‘WESTERN DISCUSSION ON QI’ I draw the remarks on qi from a text classified by Tan as ‘old studies’. The Shijuying lu bishi Ů (Notes from the Studio of the Chrysanthemum-Inkslab’s Shadow) was written during the first half of the 1890s; it is a collection of notes standing in the tradition of the biji genre that was kept alive by many Qing scholars.2 The notes are divided into two main parts, the “Xuepian” (Studies) and the 1 Tan Sitong ʊ . 1981a. “Yu Tang Fucheng shu” (Letter to Tang Fucheng), in: id. Tan Sitong quanji ʊ (Collected works of Tan Sitong [hereafter TQJ]). Edited by Cai Shangsi and Fang Xing . 2 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju , pp. 259–61; 259. 2 Luke S. K. Kwong. 1996. T’an Ssu-t’ung, 1865–1898. Life and Thought of a Reformer. Leiden: Brill, p. 71. On the genre see Liu Yeqiu ! . 1980. Lidai biji gaishu "#$% (A brief account of historical notebooks). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. Michael Lackner, Iwo Amelung and Joachim Kurtz (eds.). New Terms for New Ideas. Western Knowledge and Lexical Change in Late Imperial China. Leiden et al. 2001, pp. 257–270. © Koninklijke Brill. Printed in the Netherlands. 258 INGO SCHÄFER “Sipian” (Thoughts), and contain comments and considerations on Chinese philology, poetry, history, music, military science, etc. Some touch upon problems of ‘Western’ learning (geography, astron- omy, calendar science). The notes of the Shijuying lu bishi neither offer a coherent presen- tation of the qi problematic nor do they apply a standardized terminol- ogy, but the different terms can be connected by their common references to Chinese natural philosophy. In “Thoughts”, note no. 8, the term yuanqi & ‘primal pneuma’ belonging to the filiation of Chinese natural philosophy is applied to denote an all-comprehending substance. The substance of ‘primal qi’ comprises yinyun '( , ‘generating forces’, which generate the ‘ten thousand things’ through their ‘motion’ and motivate their changes. The absoluteness of motion is described by a paradigmatic series composed of yinyun, primal qi, the motion of the globe, the motion within the space of the earth, the motions of man and the motions of the ‘mind-heart’ (xin ) , i.e. affection and perception). ‘Motion’ seems to have a second centre in the ‘mind-heart’, the place where the ‘motions’ of the outside world are perceived and interpreted: The generating forces of the primal qi cause changes and the motions [of qi] produce [all things]. The globe is also moving within the origi- nal qi. Ships and vehicles are moving within the space of the earth, man is moving within ships and vehicles. The mind-heart is moving within the human body. The motion of the primal qi sets everything in motion. If the mind-heart of man did not move, then he could look but would not see anything, he would listen but could not hear anything. The motion would stop. Therefore I know that heaven, earth and the ten thousand things constitute a unity. If the mind-heart is corrected, every- thing is correct, if the mind-heart is spoiled, everything goes wrong.3 The terms ‘primal qi’ and yinyun are not applied in other notes of the Shijuying lu bishi, but the theme is continued by using terms like qi, liangyi *+ , yinyang ,- , which are connected by the discourse of natural philosophy with the terms ‘primal qi’ and yinyun. These con- nections can be proved by a commentary to the Yijing .ͣ written by Kong Yingda 01β (574–648). 4 Kong identifies ‘primal qi’ with the 3 Tan Sitong ʊ . 1981b. Shijuying lu bishi Ů (Notes from the Studio of the Chrysanthemum-Inkslab’s Shadow), in: TQJ, pp. 101–52; 127. 4 Zhouyi zhengyi ζ.4ͧ (The true meaning of the Book of Changes). Sibu bei- yao 6789 ed. Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, “Xici shang” :;lj (Appended remarks, part 1), 7.17a. TAN SITONG 259 term taiji = , i.e. the state of non-differentiation or primal chaos (equated to the notion of ‘unformed qi’). Taiji produces the liangyi, the ‘two [contradicting/complimentary] aspects’. The term liangyi, which can be used as an equivalent for yinyun in texts of Chinese nat- ural philosophy, connects “Thoughts”, note no. 8, to other notes of the Shijuying lu bishi. Note no. 1 states that the change of the ‘ten thou- sand things’ is determined by the specific relationship of the liangyi. A motion once performed is not reversible: As soon as the liangyi are activated all the different things and affairs are predetermined. As soon as they begin to operate [the original state] cannot be restored. Even heaven and earth, the gui > and shen ? ghosts could not change it. The unfolding of regularity is equal to the coordinate motion of the wheels of a machine; it is transmitted from this to that. In the revolving motion, the liangyi need each other; one cannot exist without the other.5 In the lexicon of Chinese natural philosophy the term liangyi is replaceable by the term yinyang. In “Thoughts”, note no. 6, the semantic series yinyun, liangyi, yinyang is related to the oppositions heaven/earth, formless/form-owning (wuxing @A / youxing BA ), emptiness/substantiality (xu C / shi D ): Earth is within heaven, and heaven is also within the earth. Within yang there is yin, within yin there is yang. That which is empty and formless is called heaven. That which is substantial and owns form is called earth. Heaven is yang but is never without yin, as the earth is yin but is never without yang; yin and yang are united in qi. How could heaven and earth be separated and constitute [thereby] a duality?6 The qualification of heaven as ‘formless’ and earth as ‘form-owning’ refers to “Qian gua” EF (Hexagram qian), the first chapter of the Yijing, where earth and heaven are described as opposites, and by analogy ‘emptiness’ is opposed to ‘substantiality’. However ‘empti- ness’ does not signify the disappearance of qi. Note no. 10 describes ‘formless’ and ‘form-owning’ as different conditions of qi-condensa- tion. The ‘formless qi’ condenses to ‘form’ which shapes the concrete things. Besides ‘motion’ or condensation/dissolution respectively, ‘penetration’ is introduced as another important property of qi. 5 Shijuying lu bishi, TQJ, p. 122 6 Ibid., p. 125. 260 INGO SCHÄFER Heaven fills space with undifferentiated, all-pervading qi, condenses and becomes stuff (zhi G ) that develops into man and things.7 Qi is formed by the activity of the contradicting forces into physical objects. Simultaneously qi functions as psychic and moral energy by motivating human perception and actions. Tan connects his explana- tion of the material qi with Mengzi’s ύI concept of haoran zhi qi J KL ‘flood-like qi ’ in which qi denotes moral virtue. The flood-like qi of Mengzi is no other qi than the qi that is breathed in and out through the nose. … Qi affects the five senses and the hundred bones. It takes forms and is sight, hearing, speech and action. It mani- fests itself and is joy and anger, sorrow and gladness.8 The ideas on qi outlined in the Shijuying lu bishi are referring to the traditional discourse of natural philosophy (Tan’s reading of the Yijing, Zhang Zai ©N [1020–1077], etc.). They do not show new ele- ments that could be related to modern scientific thought. Only in one note is this nexus drawn. There, Tan refers to what he calls a ‘Western discussion on qi’. Hypothesis no. 1 of this ‘discussion’ states that qi only extends above the earth to a distance of 200 li. This is proven by the fact that there are no living beings on high mountains etc.: The higher, the thinner the density of qi, to the point of non-existence. Thus if you ascend in a balloon you have to store qi in tanks so that you can breathe, as there is no qi up there.9 In this passage qi obviously denotes ‘air/atmosphere/biosphere’— which, by the way, is close to the etymological sense of the Chinese grapheme. The ‘Western discussion’ is indicated by featuring the phenomenon of the motion of an air-balloon, the storing of qi in tanks in combina- tion with the specification of numerical data (“distance of 200 li”). Hypothesis no. 2 of this ‘discussion’ supposes that qi does not cease at 200 li which is proven by the fact that the sun’s warmth reaches the earth, which can only be done through qi: The qi [which extends up to] 200 li is the qi of living things, whereas the qi in which there is intercourse between heaven and earth certainly has no end.