Theofilos A Nordic open access journal in Theology, Philosophy and Culture 66 Published by NLA University College – in partnership with Johannelund School of Theology VOL. 11 NR. 2 2019 Available at www.theofilos.no Intelligent Design and Natural Theology Steinar Thorvaldsen Professor of Information Science, Department of Education The Arctic University of Norway, Norway [email protected] Abstract: Natural Theology is an attempt to provide arguments for the existence of God based on reason and ordinary experience of nature. It became quite popular with both orthodox Christians and Deists between about 1650 and 1850, inspiring much of the scientific fieldwork done during that period. However, Darwin’s theory of evolution brought about a temporary decline of this Christian apologetic tradition. Intelligent Design is a relatively new scientific research program that investigates the effects of intelligent sources, and challenges basic parts of contemporary Darwinism. Fred Hoyle first issued the ideas of Intelligent Design in modern times when he discovered the unique energy level of the carbon atom in the 1950s. On Copernicus’s 500th birthday in 1973, Brandon Carter presented the discovery that the fundamental constants of physics are fine-tuned to precise values for life permittance. In the 1990s, Michael Behe and others presented arguments for Intelligent Design in molecular biology, and irreducibly complex biochemical machines in living cells. In this paper, we briefly present Intelligent Design and discuss its pos- sible application within a revitalized version of Natural Theology. The paper is mainly written from a scientific perspective. Keywords: Fine-tuning, Design, Darwinism, Molecular machines, Complexity 1. Introduction 1. Conflict ur subject is part of a wider dis- 2. Independence cussion about the relationship of 3. Interaction Oscience to religion. In most parts 4. Integration of the world, both science and religion These models interpret the relationship have substantial influence on people’s quite differently, but none of them lives and ways of thinking. The impact of regards religion as something irrelevant science and technology is even so penetra- for society. Barbour’s work is an attempt ting that we hardly notice it. to revisit the interface between science According to Ian Barbour, there are and religion, and constitutes a conceptual investigation of the differences, meeting four ways of relating science and religion:1 points, and parallels between them. He Copyright © 2020 Author(s). Peer reviewed open access article – published under CC BY-NC 4.0. Theofilos. Volume 12, 2020, issue 1, pp. 66–84 DOI: https://doi.org/10.48032/theo/12/1/7 ISSN print 1893-7969, ISSN online: ISSN 2703-7037 Steinar Thorvaldsen 67 aims to move beyond conflict and inde- complexity has emerged within nature. pendence to greater dialogue, and the A large amount of academic literature inter action model provides one way for on these topics has appeared since the making that move. There are a number of 1970s. However, it is difficult to evaluate arguments for this. First, human experi- how successful it has been. The general ence does not divide itself into discrete pub lic still seems convinced that science experiences, since reality is handled as a and religion are in conflict with each other. whole. Second, for Christians, God is the This is largely the result of quite aggressi- creator of all that is, and if God is the ve atheists such as Richard Dawkins and source of the whole of the universe, then others,3 whose works are translated Christians should seek explanations that worldwide and have influenced public do not separate religious faith from the opinion. Even academics often limit their natural world. Thirdly, the need for a knowledge to these sources. response to the environmental crisis de- In addition, theological institutions mands a strong theology of nature, only sparsely focus on the interaction bet- grounded in biblical faith commitments ween science and religion. Especially in and engaged with scientific knowledge of systematic theology, discussions concer- the world. Given those demands, interac- ning the scientific worldview and the pos- tion between science and religion is a sibility of divine action are often more or much-needed contribution to an educated less ignored. If theologians are not taking discourse. the dialogue seriously, who is? Integration is the 4th model for thin- In this paper, we first introduce king about relating science and religion. Natural Theology and Intelligent Design. In addition to interaction, integration A more extensive elaboration and discus- also focuses on the relationships between sion of the scientific arguments for detec- theological doctrines and particular scien- ting design may be found in our recent tific theories. According to Barbour, the statistical paper ‘Using statistical methods classic Natural theology and Barbour’s to model the fine-tuning of molecular own Theology of nature are two examp- machines and systems.’4 In the second les of the integration between science and part of the present paper, we discuss the religion. Whereas the traditional Natural application of the design arguments with - theology mainly looks to design in nature in a revitalized version of Natural as supportive of God’s existence, the The - Theology. o logy of nature has a broader scope and develops theories and doctrines that are 2. Natural Theology (NT) heavily informed by theories of science.2 In the first period in the history of Such an approach is more radical, and modern science, the declaration of purpo- may include revisions of some traditional siveness in the observed nature was not doctrines on creation, providence or hu- regarded as an embarrassment, but rather m an nature, in the light of current science. an accepted fact.5 Pioneers like Johannes Barbour has built his ‘Theology of natu- Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton re,’ on Darwinian theory and the natura- were all motivated by, and promoted listic philosophy that undergirds it. He their innovative research as, ‘reading the presupposes that the Darwinian mecha- book of nature’.6 Modern science grew nism is the means by which biological Theofilos vol. 12 nr. 1 2020 68 Intelligent Design and Natural Theology up in Europe around the beginning of the contrivance of a Creator. In consequence, 17th century, and Christianity had the the existence of the structured world and function of being some of the soil from life around us, proved the existence of a which it grew. designer or God behind them. In spite of some unfortunate tension, The theological interpretation of Pay- Christian theology can still claim to have ley’s thesis became known as Natural the- helped birth the basic beliefs and impulses ology and was widely applied in theologi- that gave rise to modern empirical scien- cal circles almost everywhere where thin- ce. A number of historians and sociolo- king Christianity existed. The book was gists have come to view modern science used for many years as a textbook in itself as the historical product of Chris - British universities as a basis for examina- tianity. It is hard to get much further from tion for undergraduates. Natural Theolo - the conflict thesis than this.7 There exists gy became quite popular with both ortho- a profound causal connection between dox Christians and Deists. It prospered Christianity and early modern science. greatly as an apologetic tool, particularly This is an important historical fact for in England, between about 1650 and Christian apologetics.8 1850, inspiring much of the fieldwork Natural theology was in this period done in biology during that period. quite important for the whole science and Collecting butterflies, beetles, flowers and religion dialogue. The phrase ‘natural ferns etc., also became a popular outdoor theology’ can have several meanings that hobby, all with a sense of attaining a clo- in general substantiate an intellectual ser understanding of nature’s master resonance between the Christian world- Designer. view and the natural world. Thus, the Within German biology, a coherent world that we see and experience around body of theory based on a teleological us is believed to have a deeper transcen- approach was also worked out. The his- dence, which lies beyond it, but in some tory of pre-Darwinian German biology in ways are embedded in the world that we the nineteenth century is acknowledged observe. as very active in the growth of empirical In the year 1802 William Paley pub - knowledge, which includes the beginning lish ed his famous book Natural Theo - of modern embryology, paleontology, logy: or, Evidences of the Existence and physiology and organic chemistry. One Attributes of the Deity; Collected from the main impetus for the development of bio- Appearances of Nature.9 The main messa- logical thought in Germany came from an ge of this book was that all nature speaks idealistic philosophy of nature known as of the Designer behind it. Paley's argu- romantische Naturphilosophie.10 Here the ment is constructed around a series of central issue was the problem of causality examples, including finding a watch, in biology, and Timothy Lenoir labels this com paring the eye to a telescope, and the approach a ‘theory of limited evolu- existence of finely adapted mechanical tion’.11 The romantic natural philosophy structures in animals: from the intricacy embraced at least the aesthetic dimension of the bird’s wing to the complexity of the of natural theology.12 eye, since living structures are far beyond The problem with the arguments in the power of physical processes operating Natural Theology is, of course, that they by natural laws, they must be the wise can be turned head around. Thus for Theofilos vol. 12 nr. 1 2020 Steinar Thorvaldsen 69 every instance where the natural theologi- ‘The havens declares the glory of God, an finds reason to sing God's praises, the and the firmament shows his handi - natural anti-theologian finds reason to work’.14 lament nature's cruelty.