# 2003 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria ETH306-W/1/2004±2006 97441767 Karinnew Style CONTENTS Study unit Page FOREWORD (viii) SECTION A LEARNERS WHO EXPERIENCE BARRIERS TO LEARNING STUDY UNIT 1 WHO ARE THESE LEARNERS WHO EXPERIENCE BARRIERS TO LEARNING? 2 1.1 The terms ``learners with special educational needs'' and ``learners who experience barriers to learning'' 3 1.2 Manifestations of barriers to learning 5 1.3 The interrelationship between barriers to learning 11 1.4 Phases in which barriers to learning and development come to the fore 11 1.5 Classification of learners who experience barriers to learning 12 1.6 Degrees of barriers to learning 15 1.7 Extent of barriers to learning 15 1.8 Consequences of barriers to learning 16 1.9 Summary 16 Bibliography 17 STUDY UNIT 2 CAUSES OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING 18 2.1 Why a knowledge of what causes barriers to learning is important 18 2.2 Disability 20 2.3 Extrinsic causes of barriers to learning 23 2.4 Summary 33 Bibliography 34 STUDY UNIT 3 PARENTS AND FAMILIES OF LEARNERS WHO EXPERIENCE BARRIERS TO LEARNING 36 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Some factors that may determine parental attitudes towards a learners with a physical and/or physiological impairment 38 ETH306-W/1/2004±2006 (iii) Study unit Page 3.3 Different patterns of parental attitudes 41 3.4 Life-cycle events and parental attitudes 45 3.5 The effect of the birth of a child with a physical and/or physiological impairment on the different members of the family 47 3.6 Parents and families of learners with physical and/or physiological impairments: a South African perspective 51 3.7 Possible behavioural patterns of parents of learners with physical and/or physiological impairments as far as teachers are concerned 52 3.8 Conclusion 55 Bibliography 58 SECTION B THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TO EDUCATION FOR ALL STUDY UNIT 4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TO EDUCATION FOR ALL IN OTHER COUNTRIES 60 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Primitive societies 61 4.3 The ancient civilisations 62 4.4 The early Christian period 62 4.5 The Middle Ages 63 4.6 The age of Enlightenment 63 4.7 1900 to approximately 1965 65 4.8 Recent decades 67 4.9 Summary 73 Bibliography 73 STUDY UNIT 5 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION TO EDUCATION FOR ALL IN SOUTHAFRICA 75 5.1 Introduction 76 5.2 The early years (before 1652) 76 5.3 The colonial period (1652±1947) 76 5.4 The apartheid era (1948±1994) 78 5.5 The new period (after 1994) 81 5.6 Summary 81 Bibliography 81 (iv) Study unit Page STUDY UNIT 6 THE SOUTH AFRICAN POLICY ON LEARNERS WHO EXPERIENCE BARRIERS TO LEARNING 83 6.1 Introduction 84 6.2 Factors that have influenced the policy 84 6.3 South African policy on learners who experience barriers to learning 87 6.4 Summary of the above-mentioned documents 93 6.5 Summary 94 Bibliography 96 SECTION C EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT SERVICES STUDY UNIT 7 SUPPORT SERVICES IN EDUCATION 98 7.1 Introduction 98 7.2 New trends in educational support services 99 7.3 Organisation of educational support services 102 7.4 Summary 105 Bibliography 106 STUDY UNIT 8 INFORMAL IDENTIFICATION 107 8.1 The aim of informal assessment 107 8.2 Initial identification of LSEN 108 8.2.1 Educational intuition 109 8.2.2 Screening questionnaires 109 8.3 Identification 110 8.3.1 Observation 110 8.3.2 Listening 111 8.3.3 Asking questions 111 8.4 Learner reports and school records 111 8.5 Writing reports 112 8.6 Assessment as described in the NCSNET and NCESS report 112 8.7 Summary 113 STUDY UNIT 9 ASSISTANCE 114 9.1 Introduction 114 ETH306-W/1 (v) Study unit Page 9.2 The development of an assistance programme 114 9.2.1 Situation analysis 115 9.2.2 Expected outcomes 115 9.2.3 Select the contents 116 9.2.4 Choice of assistance strategies 116 9.2.5 Choice of teaching aids 117 9.2.6 Decide who else to involve 117 9.2.7 Decide about the evaluation 117 9.2.8 The implementation of the programme 117 9.2.9 The conclusion of the programme 118 9.3 Strategies for assistance 118 9.3.1 What are teaching strategies for assistance? 118 9.3.2 Teaching strategies for assistance to a whole class 119 9.3.3 Promoting the use of metacognitive skills 121 9.3.4 Strategies to improve positive emotional experiences 122 9.3.5 Strategies used in the ``invisible curriculum'' 122 9.3.6 Strategies to promote motivation 123 9.3.7 Cooperative learning methods 124 9.3.8 Learning through peer mediation 125 9.4 What is an assistance strategy? 126 9.5 Classroom administration 129 9.6 Summary 130 STUDY UNIT 10 A NETWORK OF SUPPORT 131 10.1 Introduction 131 10.2 Education 132 10.3 Health 134 10.4 Welfare 135 10.5 Labour 135 10.6 The community 136 10.7 A network of support 138 10.8 Summary 139 Bibliography 139 SECTION D ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Ð APPENDICES Appendix A: Visual barriers to learning 143 Appendix B: Auditory barriers to learning 153 Appendix C: Intellectual barriers to learning 161 Appendix D: Physical barriers to learning 172 Appendix E: Epilepsy as a barrier to learning 182 Appendix F: Perceptual-motor barriers to learning 194 Appendix G: Language as a barrier to learning 201 (vi) Appendix H: Learning problems as a barrier to learning: foundation phase and intermediate phase 210 Appendix I: Emotional and behavioural problems as barriers to learning 230 Appendix J: Barriers to learning related to spoken language 257 Appendix K: Barriers to learning related to written language 272 Appendix L: Barriers to learning related to reading 288 Appendix M: Barriers to learning related to Mathematics 306 Appendix N: White Paper 6 319 Appendix O: Pringle's emotional needs model 353 Appendix P: Counselling techniques for teachers 376 ETH306-W/1 (vii) FOREWORD Dear Student Welcome to this module on Special Needs Education (ETH306±W), which is presented by the Department of Primary School Teacher Education. This module, and therefore also the study guide, has been compiled in such a way (in the context of knowledge, skills and attitudes) that you will be better equipped to understand learners experiencing barriers to learning, and support and accompany them so that they are able to realise as much of their inborn potential as possible. We should like you to use the study guide as a reference source, to which you should add any useful new information that you come across. We should like to impress upon you the need to keep up with self-study Ð the more research and independent study you do, the more enriching you will find this module. After all, you are busy empowering yourself with knowledge that will be of practical value to you! We intend to give you the tools you will need to complete this task successfully. Knowledge, skills and attitudes are interrelated, as is evident from the fact that attitudes can be determined or changed by knowledge and that skill in a particular field requires knowledge of the subject in addition to practice. It is important that you do not see these three components of the instructional model in isolation, but always bear in mind that they have an impact on one another. The learning content of the study guide therefore resembles a photograph mounted inside a double frame Ð in the first frame we see knowledge, attitudes and skills and the second frame bears the words ``inclusive education''. Therefore, if you look at the ``photograph'', you need to do so through the two frames (see fig 1). The second frame which bears the words ``inclusive education'' symbolises the outstanding characteristic of the new South African Education Policy, namely inclusive education. In sections A ± C it is indicated which parts need to be studied or read only. Section D is linking up with sections A ± C as well as to add on to next sections new information. (viii) FIGURE 1 Components of the instructional model It would be a useful exercise to begin by taking stock of your own knowledge, skills and attitudes so that later on you will be in a position to determine what growth has taken place in respect of each component. If you find that there has been no growth, you should work through the study guide again or repeat the module. Please complete the first questionnaire when you begin the module and the second questionnaire upon completing it Ð see Activity at the end of this section. ETH306-W/1 (ix) 1 WHAT ARE THE LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE AS A WHOLE? In White Paper 6 (2001:5, 11) the Minister of Education says the following: The education and training system should promote education for all and foster the development of inclusive and supportive centres of learning that would enable all learners to participate actively in the education process so that they could develop and extend their potential and participate as equal members of society Ð a humane and caring society. In the light of the above instruction from the Minister of Education, the following general learning outcomes have been set for this module: . To have sufficient KNOWLEDGE to gain a better understanding of Special Needs Education learners can be better equipped to accompany them so that they can realise their full potential (eg, you will need knowledge of education policy, and of the whole history of special needs education).