Amid the Shadows of Progress: Race and the Struggle for Metropolitan Democracy in Twentieth Century San Antonio by Stephen Arionus A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in The University of Michigan 2019 Doctoral Committee: Professor Matthew Lassiter, Chair Associate Professor Maria Cotera Associate Professor Matthew Countryman Associate Professor Anthony Mora Stephen Arionus [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6634-7208 © Stephen Arionus 2019 Acknowledgements Graduate school is a collaborative process and I would not be here without the support, guidance, and friendship of so many wonderful people and terrific institutions along the way. My circuitous route to graduate school began at the University of Texas at San Antonio where I met a cadre of wonderful scholars and teachers. Marian Aitches encouraged her students to think broadly about the world and our place within it. She introduced me to the writings of Malcolm X, Sherman Alexie, and Winona LaDuke. But it was reading Howard Zinn’s words that changed my life. Kolleen Guy, Wing Chung Ng, Catherine Nolan-Ferrell, Brian Davies, and Anne Hardgrove taught me the fundamental skills of historical analysis. As did Elizabeth Escobedo, but she also taught me the importance of empathy. Pat Kelly was the consummate teacher and mentor. His zest for teaching and love of history was infectious, but it was his compassion and care for his students that made a nontraditional student like me dream bigger. There was no one more excited about my decision to go to graduate school than Pat Kelly. The best piece of advice he ever game me was to remember that academics is a business. I have never forgotten that lesson. Gregg Michel also encouraged me to go to graduate school and was a stalwart ally in my corner. He suggested I attend my first historical conference where—star-struck and tongue tied—I would first meet my future mentor. Gregg Michel line-edited my writing sample and meticulously went over my application materials while on vacation. Without his generosity and support, I never would have had the confidence to apply to a place like Michigan. ii At the University of Michigan, I benefited from the instruction and guidance of many faculty members. Thank you to Jesse Hoffnung-Garskof, Paulina Alberto, Michael Witgen, and Gina Morantz-Sanchez. I am grateful that I got to work with Jonathan Marwil for several terms as a Graduate Student Instructor. He taught me that students respect an instructor who is tough but fair. Marwil’s lectures are still some of the best I have ever attended. The close collaboration between History and American Culture was a godsend. It meant I had the good fortune to work with Dan Ramírez, Scott Kurashige, and Vince Diaz while they were at the University of Michigan. I am a better scholar because of them. Words cannot adequately express how important quality staff are to one’s success in graduate school. Kathleen King, Diana Denney, Kimberly Smith, Lorena Altstetter, and Susan Kaiser answered all my questions and addressed all my (last minute) requests as I navigated the complicated bureaucracy that is the modern university. You all are amazing. I want to especially thank my incredible dissertation committee. Anthony Mora is a wonderful historian. His trenchant historiographical critiques made my project better and expanded my horizons as a scholar. The generosity and encouragement I received from the brilliant Maria Cotera has been a blessing. She was enthusiastic about my project from its earliest days. She offered insightful comments at critical moments and urged me to think about different perspectives that did not always come naturally to me. Aside from being a tremendous scholar, Matthew Countryman is an incredible teacher. I took his class my first term at the University of Michigan and his kindness, thoughtfulness, and understanding helped me get through a rough adjustment period to life at Michigan. He made me feel welcomed. His incisive questions about my project helped me sharpen my historical arguments and analysis. iii Matt Lassiter has been the model dissertation chair, mentor, and teacher. He has read every word I have written while at Michigan: the good, the bad, and the ugly. And after each read through, he always had kind words, trenchant criticism, and insightful analysis. Matt understood when to kick me in the pants and when to offer space. I want to take a moment to commend him on his indefatigable commitment to his graduate students. I have never met a more engaged faculty member. He was always there when you needed him whether that was a last-minute request for feedback or that encouragement during difficult moments in graduate school. Matt was as generous with his time as he was with his intellect. Everyone should be so fortunate to have such a kind, caring, and infinitely patient mentor as I did. I would not have made it to this point without his unwavering support. Thanks for taking a chance on a working- class kid from the far West Side of San Antonio, Matt. I am forever grateful. I found Michigan to be a welcoming place to study not least of which because of the intellectual generosity of fellow graduate students: Ángela Pérez-Villa, Marvin Chochotte, Josh Mound, Katie Rosenblatt, Ronit Stahl, Ananda Burra, Sophie Hunt, Joseph Ho, Tatiana Cruz, Melissa Johnson, Jonathan Shaw, Jasmine Kraemer, Garrett Felber, Eric Shih, Sarah Nobles, Lloyd Barba, Brittany Magueri, Rabia Belt, and Nicole Greer Golda. A special thank you to Nora Krinitsky, whose keen intellect and astute contributions made everyone in our cohort better. I could not have made it through my early years in Ann Arbor without the support from the small cohort of graduate students of color in History and American Culture, especially Antonio Ramirez, CaVar Reid, Andrés Pletch, Jenny Kwak, Hiroaki Matsusaka, and Austin McCoy. Becky Hill was my closest friend in Ann Arbor. She was never afraid to admit what she did not know. Becky’s intrepidness in that regard is the quality I admire most about her. Outside of the History department, Kitior Ngu, Julie Fogarty, and Richard and Christina Sampson were iv always up for a much-needed game night. Katie Ballentine helped me find a life outside of the Ann Arbor bubble for which I am thankful. The generous support of the Rackham Graduate School helped fund my graduate studies through the Rackham Merit Fellowship. Aside from funding, the Rackham Merit Fellowship also provided an integral introduction to Michigan through the Rackham Summer Institute. This program introduced me to a wide range of scholars across disciplines and helped me get acclimated to Ann Arbor. The Arts of Citizenship fellowship (now known as the Rackham Program in Public Scholarship) provided summer funding which allowed me to intern at the Charles Wright African American History Museum. My time at the Charles Wright reinforced my commitment to public history as well as increased my appreciation for the work that goes into creating an exhibition from scratch. Late in my graduate career, I had the good fortune to work with the Civil Rights in Black and Brown Oral History Project (CRBB) out of Texas Christian University. Max Krochmal, Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez, Marvin Dulaney, and Todd Moye are tremendous oral historians whose commitment to public history is inspiring. They helped foster in me a love of oral history. I cannot imagine completing any future project without conducting oral interviews. While working for CRBB I met some extraordinary graduate students: Katherine Bynum, Sandra Enríquez, Eladio Bobadilla, Jasmine Howard, Samantha Rodriguez, James Wall, Joel Zapata among them. Vinicio Sinta and I crisscrossed the state of Texas and conducted over eighty oral history interviews with a wide array of individuals who generously gave their time and shared their stories to two complete strangers. I learned more about the Civil Rights movement and Texas history in those two months than I did in the previous six years. v I could not have completed this journey without the unfailing love and support of my family. My sister Myla always offered words of affirmation and encouragement along with easy laughs. Over the years, I have gotten to watch my nephew, Junior, develop into a smart, funny, and articulate young man. My only regret is that a dissertation deadline forced me to miss our annual Marvel movie outing this year. I am sorry! These last several years in San Antonio have afforded me the opportunity to get to know my youngest nephew, Kingston. He always brings a smile to my face every time I see him. I cannot wait to witness the amazing things he will accomplish in his life. And, finally, to my mother and her husband Rich. Without their support, I could never have accomplished this goal. My mother, Zena, worked so hard to get me where I am today. She never stopped believing in my ability to succeed even when I had my own doubts. Her love and generosity of spirit helped push me over the line. Thank you so much. I love you all. vi Table of Contents 1.1 Population Growth and the Immigrant Experience ...................................................... 25 1.2 The Construction of the Barrio and the Vice District................................................... 30 1.3 The Criminalization of Vice on the West Side ............................................................. 41 1.4 Soldiers and Vice .......................................................................................................... 52 1.5 Tuberculosis and the Barrio.......................................................................................... 57 2.1 The State and the “Mexican Problem”.......................................................................... 70 2.2 The Local Consequences of the “Mexican Problem” ................................................... 76 2.3 Eleuterio Escobar, LULAC, and The School Improvement League: Creating Community from the Ground Up .............................................................................................. 81 2.4 Emma Tenayuca: Creating Community through Labor Organizing and Protest .......