Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies College of Natural Sciences Department of Zoological Sciences A Comparative Study on the Behavioural Ecology and Conservation of the Southern Gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) in and around Borena Sayint National Park, Ethiopia By Zewdu Kifle Aweke Advisor: Prof. Afework Bekele A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Ecological and Systematic Zoology in the Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa, Ethiopia April, 2018 NAME AND SIGNATURE OF EXAMINING COMMITTEE Name Signature 1. _________________________________ _______________________ 2. _________________________________ _______________________ 3. _________________________________ ________________________ 4. _________________________________ ________________________ ABSTRACT A Comparative Study on the Behavioural Ecology and Conservation of the Southern Gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) in and around Borena Sayint National Park, Ethiopia Zewdu Kifle Aweke, Doctoral degree Addis Ababa University, 2018 The southern gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) is an endemic little known subspecies of gelada that occur in northern central highlands of Ethiopia. The study was conducted for 18 months (May 2015–March 2017) to investigate the flexibility of southern geladas in terms of their behavioural ecology by comparing two bands (Selam and Tikure) that occupied different habitat types in and around Borena Sayint National Park (BSNP). The study also examined the magnitude of human-gelada conflict and assessed the attitude of local farmers toward the conservation of geladas. The population size of geladas was estimated, and their group sizes were also compared between fragments and BSNP. Total count method was employed to estimate the population size of geladas. Data on the activity budget, feeding ecology, ranging ecology and microhabitat use of the two bands were quantified using scan sampling method. Data on human-gelada conflict were collected using questionnaire interview method. The population size of geladas was 2786 individuals. The band size in the unprotected area was 40.07 while in BSNP it was 81.56. The overall time spent feeding, moving, resting, grooming and socializing between the two bands were not significant. Selam band spent significantly more time feeding during the dry season than the wet season (p = 0.049); however, for Tikure band the difference was not significant (p = 0.112). The trend of activity pattern of the two bands differed from each other. 74 plant species were identified as food for Selam band while Tikure band was found feeding on 36 plants. Food items consumption markedly varied between seasons. Cumulative aboveground herb consumption was higher for Tikure band than Selam band, and the difference was significant (p < 0.00l). Fruits accounted for 7.18% for Selam band and 0.22% for Tkure band. The similarities of food species of the two bands overlapped very weakly (Sørensen’s coefficient = 0.19). The availability of green grasses was positively correlated with the consumption of grass blades and negatively correlated with underground grass item. The mean annual day path length for Selam band was 2438.35 m while it was 2512.64 m for Tikure band, but the difference was not significant (p = 0.569). Both bands used different home range sizes. Selam spent more time in open grazing plateau while Tikure spent in a long grassland plateau type of microhabitat. Overall, 42.41% of respondents had negative attitude towards geladas, and 92.13% considered them as crop pest. The result showed that southern geladas adapt anthropogenic habitat alterations by adjusting their ecological flexibility with respect to the habitat type. Thus, it is critical to consider the conservation value of human- altered landscapes. Keywords: Activity budget, behavioural flexibility, BSNP, conservation, feeding ecology, southern gelada iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Afework Bekele and indebted to express my deepest gratitude for his unreserved guidance, professional comments and suggestions starting from the beginning of selecting possible study area to the completion of the study. Without whom this thesis would never have been possible. His constant support and encouragement has been invaluable. I owe him my deepest gratitude. He has truly changed my life. I would like to acknowledge Prof. Abebe Getahun, Chairperson of the Department of Zoological Sciences, for giving timely response to my requests. I would like to forward my sincere thanks to Dr. Gurja Belay for his continuous encouragement throughout my research work. My sincere gratitude extends to Prof. Peter J. Fashing and Mr. Addisu Mekonnon who suggested the idea of conducting this research in Borena Sayint National Park. I thank Peter J. Fashing for arranging the equipment that I received from IDEA WILD. I thank Paul Joseph Bechtold to transport equipment that I got from IDEA WILD from USA to Addis Ababa. This dissertation research would not have been possible without the logistical and financial support of a number of people and institutions. I would like to thank Addis Ababa University for supporting my research grant and logistics. I also thank the animal diversity thematic research for financial assistance. I thank my institution, Bahir Dar University, for sponsoring my PhD study and providing additional financial support. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the Primate Conservation Incorporated and the Rufford Foundation for their financial support, and the IDEA WILD for providing equipment (Laptop, GPS, Digital Camera and General Tools and Instrumnets Wireless Rain Gauge and Thermometer) to conduct this research. I would like to thank the Amhara National Regional State for allowing me to carry out the research on the southern geladas in and around BSNP. My special thanks go to Ato Dejene iv Aweke, the warden of BSNP, for helping me in site selection of the bands at the beginning of the study period. The completion of all aspects of this research, however, was only truly possible with the patience, enthusiasm, and hard work of my field assistants, Alebachew Kassa, Feseha Molla and Habitamu Belete. I am extremely grateful to all of the residents of study sites who supported my work and welcomed me into their villages as friends. I thank Ato Molla Abebe and W/ro Yetnate Teshome, from Keywasha, and Ato Emiru Fiseha and his mother, W/ro Belay Endirie from Kosheme for welcoming me into their homes. Without their hospitability, I could not have sustained myself in the field under the hard physiographic and weather conditions of the afroalpine area of the Park. In addition, I would like to thank all the teachers of the Keywasha elementary school for their moral support at Keywasha site. I owe my heartfelt thanks to my wife Yerom Tamene for her patience in shouldering all the responsibility of family burdens. I also thank my father, brothers, sisters and other relatives for their encouragement throughout my academic carrier. Lastly, I would like to show my gratitude to PhD students and graduates in the Department of Zoological Sciences at Addis Ababa University for their help and assistance. v DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my late mother, Turye Eshete, and my brother, Atele Kifle for their love, affection and contribution for my academic and personal advancement. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................. vii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................ xii LIST OF PLATES ....................................................................................................................... xvi LIST OF APPENDICES.............................................................................................................. xvi 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Background ...................................................................................................................... 5 1.2. Research problems, objectives and research questions.................................................... 7 1.2.1. Research problems ................................................................................................ 7 1.2.2. General objective................................................................................................... 8 1.2.3. Specific objectives................................................................................................. 8 1.2.4. Research questions ................................................................................................ 9 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 12 2.1. Physical description of geladas ...................................................................................... 12 2.2. Taxonomy of geladas ..................................................................................................... 12 2.3. Origin of geladas ...........................................................................................................