POLISH JOURNAL OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SCIENCES Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2006, Vol. 15/56, No 4, pp. 379–384 ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN FOOD CHOICE – A REVIEW Ewa Babicz-Zielińska Department of Trade and Services, Food and Nutrition Assessment Group, Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia Key words: attitudes, functional food, genetically-modified food, healthy food, organic food, unfamiliar food Psychological factors such as motives, personality and attitudes towards food and nutrition have been reviewed, and shown to essentially influ- ence nutritional behavior. Even rational motives, like the wish to be healthy and slim, may result in eating disorders, especially in orthorexia and anorexia nervosa. Both the effect of ingested food on emotional status and the effect of emotions on food choice have been demonstrated. The results of research on consumer attitudes towards transgenic, functional, ecological and unfamiliar foods have been presented. The improper attitudes towards various forms of food and eating have often resulted from unfamiliarity of foods (neophobia) or their effects on health (functional food). The results obtained show that the knowledge of consumers’ motives and attitudes is an important factor permitting the food producers to implement the best marketing strategy to increase sales, as well as allowing the dietetics and physicians to asses the risks of development of eating disorders and to change them into healthy attitudes. INTRODUCTION habits), cultural factors (traditions, religions), and context (place, time and company associated with eating). Food choice is a complex phenomenon that depends on Among factors that determine the quantity and sort of a number of factors influencing human psyche in a different food consumed, the psychological factors play very impor- way. As a result of such influence, some products are chosen tant roles. Motives, attitudes and personality are considered while others rejected. Due to a great variety of foods offered, as the key factors [Woś, 2003]. criteria of choice are not always in accordance with the needs of a human body. Following this, the improper food habits MOTIVES may develop and exert negative effects on human well-being [Shepherd & Dennison, 1996]. The motive induces and directs the consumer’s behavior Research into the behavior and attitudes of consumers in order to fulfill the expressed demands. The motives can be play a crucial role in preventing such negative effects. So far rational when they result in reasonable behavior, and emo- studies have been mainly aimed at: (i) estimating demands tional when they cause spontaneous behavior, following tem- for new market products, i.e. determining to what extent the porary moods or emotions. The majority of motives affect- new product may be accepted and which marketing strategy ing the consumer’s behavior are associated with affiliation has to be implemented to increase its sale; (ii) determining to a social group; another may result from desire to preserve feeding patterns of consumer groups and assessing the glob- good well-being. One of the dominant motives of food choice al food consumption; (iii) and diagnosing eating disorders, is the wish to obtain a certain psychical comfort after eating i.e. the attitudes concerning the restrictive diets and “healthy specific foods prepared in a specific way [Babicz-Zielińska, food” in order to determine whether they may induce such 1999]. eating disorders as anorexia or orthorexia nervosa. Not always the rational motives result in proper food pat- There have been numerous attempts to classify the fac- terns. For example, the desire to be healthy, slim or conserve tors influencing the consumers` behavior [Wierenga, 1983; the youth, can result in improper food behavior referred to as Khan, 1981; Shepherd, 1989; Gains, 1994]. Generally, all “food faddism”. Their sources are most often explained by: factors can be put into one of the three following classes (i) beliefs in properties of some foods which prevent illness- [Babicz-Zielińska, 2003]: (1) Product-related factors: physi- es; (ii) beliefs that some foods are especially unhealthy and cochemical properties, nutrient contents, sensory attributes, should be eliminated; (iii) and beliefs that only natural food, and functionality (convenience, availability, packaging, dura- without any preservatives or preparations, is healthy [Field- bility); (2) Consumer-related factors: demographic factors, house, 1995]. metabolism (hunger, thirst), psychological factors (motives, The pathological obsession about biologically-pure food, personality, attitudes); and (3) Environmental factors: eco- which can cause substantial dietetic limitations, is referred nomic factors, social factors (social group, family patterns, to as orthorexia nervosa. Orthorectic subjectsexclude from Author’s address for correspondence: prof. Ewa Babicz-Zielińska, Department of Trade and Services, Food and Nutrition Assessment Group, Gdynia Maritime University, ul. Morska 81-87, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland; tel.: (48 58) 690 16 25; e-mail: [email protected] 380 E. Babicz-Zielińska their diet any food which they consider to be impure because ones has shown that healthy foods are associated with pos- it may contain herbicides, pesticides or artificial substanc- itive emotions, like self-confidence, friendship, happiness, es, line preservatives, or the processed food. This obsession whereas unhealthy food – with negative emotions as anxi- results in a loss of social relationships and affective dissatis- ety or boredom. As claimed by the authors, such observation faction because the orthorectic subjects are all the time con- suggests the occurrence of the so-called “body wisdom”. cerned with eating [Catalina et al., 2005]. Donini & Marsil In a study of the author [Babicz-Zielińska, in press], [2004] have shown that persons suffering from orthorexia the impact of emotions on the quantity and sorts of food- have a specific attitude to food: preserved food is dangerous stuffs consumed has been shown among a hundred of young for health, and healthy food should be biologically pure. women, aged 15–19. Sweets have been chosen in anger, sor- row, boredom, stress, namely in negative moods, but also in EFFECTS OF EMOTIONS love and happiness. When tired, subjects have more preferred yogurts and fruit. Boredom has resulted in an increased The relation between food choice and emotional sta- intake of food; such an effect has been previously reported tus is complex. Some foods are chosen in order to improve by as more as 83% of young women. No special preferences emotional states – restore vigor, decrease depression. On the have been noted in the last mood, and sweets, junk food, fruit other hand, food preferences depend to a substantial extent ad yogurts have been preferred. on current mood. In a research aimed at determining the influence of intro- A number of foods have been considered to influence extraversion on food behavior [Narojek, 1993], the persons mood and mental freshness. They include coffee, tea, alco- showing a high extraversion degree have eaten more irreg- hols, and “energy” drinks. The latter are widely claimed to ularly and preferred to a greater extent the sour taste, meat prevent sleepiness and restore the well-being and energy. and fatty dishes. Among a number of constituents that can usually be found in these drinks, like inositol and taurine, the main effects of ATTITUDES the drinks seems to derive from caffeine and carbohydrates [Smit & Rogers, 2002]. Another important psychological factor influencing food The effect of caffeine is expressed as increased feelings of behavior and choice are attitudes. The attitude is defined as well-being, energy, motivation, alertness, concentration etc. an entity composed of a heterogeneous array of thoughts [Mumford et al., 1994]. However, some research have failed and other responses relevant to expressing the relatively sta- to prove any positive effect of caffeine on mood [Landolt et ble meaning and feeling of different attitudes to objects such al., 1995; Smith et al., 1997]. This could have resulted from as products, persons, slogans or ideas toward which people the use of improper methods to study this difficult problem. differ as regards positive and negative effect [Olsen, 1999; Therefore, in another work [Smit & Rogers, 2002] some spe- Jachnis & Terelak, 1998]. The attitude has three components: cial, mutually adding techniques have been applied. After cognitive, affective and conative. Shepherd [1988] has indi- any test, the subjects have assessed their mood state or feel- cated the affective component as a principal component of ing, e.g.: fatigued, tense, thirsty, relaxed, revitalized, and oth- an attitude. The preferences expressed most often as liking/ ers. The overall mood has also been measured, each time at unliking degree, have been suggested as properties of atti- a 100-mm scale. As it has been shown, it was the caffeine that tudes [Olsen, 1999]. Recently, in the EC countries a grow- influenced the mood and could be described as a constituent ing interest can be noted in studies into consumers’ attitudes capable of restoring mental energy. towards novel food, especially towards transgenic, function- Some persons demonstrate smaller appetite and lowered al, organic and unfamiliar food. food intake when subjected to any emotions, especially nega- tive ones. Others under similar conditions have greater appe- ATTITUDES TOWARDS UNFAMILIAR FOOD tite. The relation between mental state and appetite