Local Worlds Rural Livelihood Strategies in Eastern Cape, South Africa Flora Hajdu Linköping Studies in Arts and Science No. 366 Linköping University, Department of Water and Environmental Studies Linköping 2006 Linköping Studies in Arts and Science • No. 366 At the Faculty of Arts and Science at Linköpings universitet, research and doctoral studies are carried out within broad prob- lem areas. Research is organized in interdisciplinary research environments and doctoral studies mainly in graduate schools. Jointly, they publish the series Linköping Studies in Arts and Science. This thesis comes from the Department of Water and Environmental Studies at the Tema Institute. Distributed by: Department of Water and Environmental Studies Linköping University 581 83 Linköping Flora Hajdu Local Worlds Rural Livelihood Strategies in Eastern Cape, South Africa Edition 1:1 ISBN 91-85523-25-9 ISSN 0282-9800 © Flora Hajdu and Department of Water and Environmental Studies Original front cover photos: Flora Hajdu View over Cutwini and workers at the Mazizi Tea Plantation Printed by: LiU-Tryck, Linköping 2006 ‘It’s not the kings and generals that make history, but the masses of the people; the workers, the peasants, the doctors, the clergy’ Nelson Mandela ‘None but ourselves can free our minds’ Bob Marley Contents List of Figures, Tables and Boxes..................................................................xi Abbreviations.............................................................................................. xiii South African Institutions ...................................................................... xiii South Africa-specific and isiXhosa Words ..................................................xiv Acknowledgements.......................................................................................15 Preface ..........................................................................................................19 Chapter 1. Introduction: A World in Local Livelihoods...............................23 The Focus on ’Local’ and ’Livelihoods’..................................................24 Research Themes......................................................................................25 Notes on the Writing ................................................................................27 Disposition...........................................................................................28 Chapter 2. Local Livelihoods in Dynamic Contexts.....................................31 Complex Approaches in a Complex World .............................................31 Constructivism and Interdisciplinarity ................................................33 Anthropological Methods and Relativism ...........................................34 Grounded Theory.................................................................................35 Participatory Research.........................................................................36 Local Worlds and Planning from Above..................................................39 Beginning with the Local Perspective .................................................39 Conceptualisation of Local Worlds in Planning Contexts...................41 Viewing Local Worlds Through the Biased Western Eye ..............42 Implementation of Western Ideas in African Localities .................44 Agricultural Policies...................................................................45 Policies for Local Job Creation ..................................................46 Policies for Conservation and Resource Use Restrictions..........48 The Degradation Narrative ..................................................................50 Degradation Narratives in Transkei and South Africa....................51 Livelihoods Approaches for Local Analysis............................................55 Introducing Livelihoods Approaches...................................................56 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework........................................57 Basic Needs and Livelihood Security .............................................59 Diversification and ‘Multiple Livelihood Strategies’..........................60 Poverty, Vulnerability and Policies .....................................................62 Chapter 3. South African Perspectives .........................................................65 Politicised South African Narratives........................................................66 A Brief Historical Introduction to South Africa ..................................67 Policies and Projects in the “New” South Africa .....................................71 South African Poverty Relief Programmes .........................................71 The Social Grant System .....................................................................72 Restrictions on Local Natural Resource Use .......................................73 Environment and Tourism ...................................................................75 Rural Livelihoods in Transkei..................................................................77 Changes in Rural Livelihoods during Colonial Times ........................78 Apartheid Policies Impacting on Rural Livelihoods............................81 Pondoland and the Case Study Villages...................................................84 Cutwini ................................................................................................88 Manteku...............................................................................................91 Cutwini and Manteku Compared.........................................................93 Chapter 4. Processes of Field Research ........................................................95 Collecting the Field Data..........................................................................97 Participation and Observations............................................................97 Initiating Fieldwork .............................................................................98 Working with Assistants .................................................................98 Definitions Adopted for Data Collection.............................................99 The Household Survey ......................................................................100 Creating the Questionnaire............................................................100 The Survey Process.......................................................................101 Qualitative Interviews........................................................................102 Follow-up Household Interviews..................................................102 Key Informant Interviews in the Villages.....................................103 Interviews with Local Officials, NGOs and Researchers .............104 Collection of Spatial Data..................................................................104 Analysis and Presentation of Results .....................................................105 Chapter 5. Village Life in Cutwini and Manteku........................................107 Households, Families and Homesteads..................................................107 Size and Composition of Households................................................107 Household Life Cycles and Family Types.........................................109 The Homestead ..................................................................................112 Village-Wide Institutions .......................................................................114 Social Networks – Relatives, Neighbours and Friends......................114 Local Stratifications in Society..........................................................117 The Status of Women....................................................................119 The Institution of Marriage ......................................................120 Village Institutions for Decision-Making..........................................122 Ceremonies, Events and Daily Socialising........................................123 Meeting Daily Basic Needs....................................................................124 Healthcare and Diseases ....................................................................127 Education...........................................................................................129 Infrastructure and Transportation ......................................................130 Chapter 6. Livelihood Activities in the Study Area....................................131 A Framework for Analysing Livelihoods ..............................................131 Monetary Livelihood Activities .............................................................135 Jobs ....................................................................................................135 Local Employment........................................................................138 Poverty Relief Programmes ..........................................................139 Informal Jobs.................................................................................140 Labour Migration ..........................................................................140 Piece Jobs .................................................................................141 Governmental Grants.........................................................................141 Natural Resource-Based Livelihood Activities......................................143 Water.............................................................................................143