HOUSING FIRST AND ‘ENDING’ YOUTH HOMELESSNESS IN THE NEOLIBERAL ERA: A Case Study of the Infinity Project & Calgary’s 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness AMANDA J.F. NOBLE A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program of Education York University January 2018 © Amanda J.F. Noble, 2018 Abstract The purpose of this study is twofold. First, I conduct a mixed-methods program evaluation of the first known Housing First program for Youth called the Infinity Project in Calgary, Alberta. I analyze Infinity using Gaetz’s (2014b) Housing First for Youth Framework and investigate the main outcomes of the program using HMIS and Outcomes Star data. The second purpose of this research is to conduct a grounded analysis of the Infinity Project and the 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness it is embedded within through the lens of neoliberal governmentality. The findings show that the Infinity Project strongly adheres to Gaetz’s Housing First for Youth Framework, although informally in some respects. The youth also retain their housing at levels comparable to the Canadian literature, and show modest improvements in their physical health and in the use of public services. The program faces several challenges, particularly in securing affordable housing for the youth and the necessary mental health and addictions support. These findings suggest that while largely successful at a programmatic level, there are multiple systemic and structural challenges that are beyond the control of the program. From a governmentality perspective, I argue that the Housing First and 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness models are insufficient to address homelessness because they do not challenge the neoliberal status quo in two ways. First, while there are important sites of resistance, the initiatives remain mired in neoliberal governmentality at the levels of the individual, population and spatially. Second, they do not address the root structural causes of homelessness, including poverty, the lack of affordable housing, colonization / discrimination and the inadequate welfare state and social service sector. I question whether using the language of ‘ending’ homelessness in the absence of primary prevention can be harmful to the overall cause of addressing homelessness as it continues to allow governments to abdicate on their responsibilities, and ii reinforces the notion that homelessness is ‘solved’ through strategies targeted at the individual level. Instead, these efforts must be combined with primary prevention strategies that are targeted at a universal level, and which situate housing and obtaining a particular standard of living as a human right. Only then may we be closer to ending mass homelessness that is characteristic of modern neoliberal society. iii Acknowledgements It is hard to believe that I am finally writing this page, the last of my dissertation. It has been a long road and there are numerous people who have made this possible. I would like to start by thanking my partner Christopher, whose love, encouragement and support through the writing of my dissertation has been invaluable. Christopher, you once gave me the best advice for succeeding in the academic world (“be yourself”), and while ostensibly simple, I know that it has changed my career forever. I would also like to thank my three children Kaylin, Adelaide and Daxon, for being my motivation to keep working every day. You are the lights of my life and I am so grateful to have been given the opportunity to watch you grow into the amazing people you are becoming. I would like to thank the young people I interviewed for taking the time to share their thoughts and experiences with me. Your courage and resilience is truly inspirational, and I wish the best for you in all of your future endeavours. I am genuinely grateful for the Infinity Project staff whom allowed me to study their program and generously shared their thoughts and wisdom with me. I am in awe of the work you do, and believe that you provide a wonderful and much needed service to your young people. I would like to acknowledge the tremendous support of my supervisor, Dr. Stephen Gaetz. He has provided me with an incredible amount of guidance throughout my PhD studies, and for this I am extremely grateful. I am continually inspired by his work in the field of homelessness where is he is the national guru, even being given the Order of Canada. If I achieve even a fraction of what he has in his career, I will know that I have succeeded. Stephen, you have been my main cheerleader, and have continually inspired me to continue moving forward in the face of doubt and uncertainty, and for this I am forever grateful. iv I am also greatly indebted to my dissertation committee for taking the time to review my work and provide invaluable feedback that has greatly improved my final product. Thank you for continuing to push my thinking and for supporting me through this process. I would like to thank my many colleagues whom I have witnessed progress from PhD candidate to Doctor of Philosophy, as they have all helped me maintain my motivation during some difficult times: Dr. Nick Falvo, Dr. Kaitlin Schwan, Dr. Kristy Bucierri, Dr. Naomi Nichols, Dr. Naomi Thulien, and Dr. Alex Abromavich. I am in awe of all of your passion, intelligence and dedication to addressing homelessness in Canada, and I am honoured to be your colleague. Similarly, my work colleagues have helped me keep moving forward when I felt overwhelmed and on the verge of burnout: Jazzy and IC (nickname pending), thank you for encouraging me each and every day. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their love and support, particularly my mother Joanne, father Russell, sister Jennifer, Aunt Maude, dad in heaven, James, and cousin Dani. I would not be who I am today without all of you. I love you all to the moon and back. v Table of Contents ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………....ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………………..iv LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………...x LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………....xi 1. CHAPTER ONE: HOUSING FIRST AND ‘ENDING’ YOUTH HOMELESSNESS IN THE NEOLIBERAL ERA………………………………………………………………...1 Neoliberalism and Governmentality………………………………………….…...3 Youth Homelessness in Canada and Models of Accommodation ………………..5 Calgary’s 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness and the Infinity Project …………..7 A Mixed-Methods Case Study Approach…………………………………………7 The Housing First for Youth Framework and Outcomes………………………....9 Infinity, Calgary’s 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness and Neoliberalism………9 Discussion: A Rights-Based Approach to Homelessness………………………..10 2. CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK – NEOLIBERAL GOVERNMENTALITY…….…………………………………………………………...13 Understanding Neoliberalism……..……………………………………………..13 A Post-Structural Critique of Neoliberalism: Governmentality ….……………..15 Neoliberal Governmentality at the Level of the Individual – Discipline………..19 Technologies of Self……………………………………………………..19 Neoliberal Governmentality at the Level of the Population – Biopolitics…..…...20 The Spatial Dimensions of Neoliberal Governmentality………………..……….22 Neoliberal Complexities…………………………………………………………25 Performativity……………………………………………………………………26 Neoliberalism in Canada…………………………………………………………28 Affordable Housing……………………………………………………...29 Alberta and Neoliberalism……………………………………………….31 In Summary – Neoliberalism…………………………………………………….33 3. CHAPTER THREE: YOUTH HOMELESSNESS IN CANADA AND MODELS OF ACCOMMODATION.………………………………………………………….……….34 Youth Homelessness in Canada………………………………………………….34 Understanding Youth Homelessness………….....................................................35 What Causes Youth Homelessness?……………………………………..36 The Consequences of Youth Homelessness……………………………..40 Canada Responds to a New Crisis……………………………………………….41 vi Ten-Year Plans to End Homelessness and the Calgary Homeless Foundation…………………………………………………………….…44 Models of Accommodation and Housing First………………………………..…46 Emergency Shelters……………………………………………………………...46 Transitional Housing……………………………………………………………..49 Housing First……………………………………………………………………..53 Housing First for Youth……………………………………………….....61 A Housing First Framework for Youth…………………………..63 In Summary – Youth Homelessness and Models of Accommodation………......69 4. CHAPTER FOUR: CALGARY’S PLAN TO END HOMELESSNESS AND THE INFINITY PROJECT……………………………………………………………………72 Calgary’s Plan to End Homelessness………………………………………….....72 Coordinated Access and Assessment (CAA)………………….……........75 Homeless Management Information Systems (HMIS)……...…………...77 Calgary’s Plan to End Youth Homelessness…………………...………...78 A Note on the Province of Alberta………………………..……………..80 The Infinity Project……………………………………………..………………..81 Program Goals and Evidence of Effectiveness…………..………………85 In Summary: Calgary’s 10-Year Plan to End Homelessness and the Infinity Project……………………………………………………………………………86 5. CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS………………….……….......88 Design……………………………………………………………………………88 A Case Study Approach…………………………………………….…………....91 Phase One……………………………………………….………………..91 Phase Two…………………………………………….…………….........92 Document Review…………………………………………….……….....92 HMIS Data……………………………………………….………………93 The Outcomes Star – Homelessness Star……………….………………..97 Staff Interviews…………………………………………………………..99 Youth Interviews………………………………………………………..100 Qualitative Data Analysis………………………………………101 Ethical Considerations………………………………………………………….102 6. CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS: