Principled Pragmatism: Non-Governmental Influence on New Zealand’s Nuclear Disarmament Advocacy 1995-2000 Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Political Science Author: Lyndon Burford University of Canterbury November 2008 Acknowledgements ................................................................................... i Declaration of Personal Interests............................................................... i Abbreviations ........................................................................................... ii Abstract ................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1: Introduction.............................................................................................. 1 1. Nuclear Free New Zealand ........................................................................... 1 2. The Power of Ideas ....................................................................................... 6 3. The Rise of Non-Governmental Organisations ............................................ 6 4. Previous Research......................................................................................... 7 5. Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation in Crisis ................................ 8 6. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 15 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework......................................................................... 17 1. Introduction................................................................................................. 17 2. Constructivism: the Power of Values, not the Value of Power .................. 20 Norms-Based Analysis........................................................................... 22 3. The Limits of Rationalism.......................................................................... 30 Rationalism in the Nuclear Context ....................................................... 33 Rationalism and Nuclear Free New Zealand.......................................... 35 4. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 37 Chapter 3: New Zealand Nuclear Disarmament Advocacy 1995-2000................ 39 1. Introduction................................................................................................. 39 2. The Policy Process...................................................................................... 39 3. Key International Developments ................................................................ 41 End of the Cold War............................................................................... 41 Indefinite Extension of the NPT............................................................. 41 Chinese / French Nuclear Testing .......................................................... 43 The Canberra Commission Report......................................................... 44 The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty..................................................... 45 Indian and Pakistani Nuclear Tests ........................................................ 46 4. New Zealand Policy Initiatives................................................................... 46 International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion ................................... 47 New Zealand-South Africa Memorandum of Cooperation.................... 50 The New Agenda Coalition.................................................................... 50 The 2000 NPT Review Conference ....................................................... 53 5. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 58 Chapter 4: New Zealand NGO Nuclear Disarmament Advocacy ........................ 60 1. Introduction................................................................................................. 60 2. Domestic NGO Advocacy .......................................................................... 62 National Consultative Committee on Disarmament............................... 62 Public Advisory Committee on Disarmament and Arms Control.......... 63 Response to Renewed French Nuclear Testing...................................... 65 New Zealand Parliamentary Motion on Nuclear Disarmament ............. 67 NGO Influence on the New Zealand Labour Party................................ 68 3. Transnational NGO Advocacy ................................................................... 70 The World Court Project........................................................................ 73 Abolition 2000........................................................................................ 76 The Model Nuclear Weapons Convention ............................................. 78 The Middle Powers Initiative................................................................. 79 4. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 84 Chapter 5: Discussion ............................................................................................... 86 1. Introduction................................................................................................. 86 2. Insights Offered by Norms Theory............................................................. 89 Policy Influences on Norm Leaders ....................................................... 94 3. Efficient / Permissive Causes of State Behaviour ..................................... 96 4. Developments in the New Millennium..................................................... 100 5. Contemporary Challenges for New Zealand NGOs ................................. 104 6. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 106 Chapter 6: Conclusion ............................................................................................ 108 1. Introduction............................................................................................... 108 2. Strengths of New Zealand Disarmament NGOs....................................... 109 3. New Zealand Leadership on Nuclear Disarmament................................. 112 4. A Nuclear Weapons Convention .............................................................. 115 5. Policy Recommendations ......................................................................... 124 Track II Exploration of a Nuclear Weapons Convention..................... 124 Further Development of Nuclear Weapon Free Zones ........................ 127 International NGO Internships ............................................................. 128 NGO Representatives on NPT Delegations ......................................... 129 6. Future research.......................................................................................... 130 Nuclear Disarmament Norm Development in New Zealand ............... 130 Norm Leadership.................................................................................. 130 Critical States ....................................................................................... 130 The Role of the Media.......................................................................... 131 7. Reality versus Realism ............................................................................. 132 8. Conclusion ................................................................................................ 134 Appendices ............................................................................................................... 136 1. Interviewees.............................................................................................. 136 2. NGO Membership .................................................................................... 136 3. PACDAC Minutes.................................................................................... 137 4. NGO Representatives on Government Delegations ................................. 137 5. New Zealand-South Africa Memorandum of Cooperation on Disarmament and Arms Control (1996).................................................. 137 Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 138 i Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank all of the passionate, principled citizens around the country who helped to make New Zealand a nuclear free nation. Your inspiration and dedication have left the generations of today and tomorrow with a more hopeful vision for the future. Especially, I would like to thank Kate Dewes, Rob Green, and Alyn Ware for your support, generosity and encouragement with my work and studies, and for your dedication to the vision of a world free of nuclear weapons. A huge thank you also to my whole family, for all your love, support, and patience. You have helped to make me who I am today. Thank you also to my supervisor, Tanya Ogilvie-White. You are quite simply the best, most encouraging teacher I’ve ever had. It has been a pleasure to learn with you. I am grateful to all the people who agreed to be interviewed for this research - your input has been much valued and appreciated. Additionally, I wish to thank the Disarmament Division at New Zealand’s Ministry for Foreign Affairs and Trade, which made every effort to facilitate requests for materials for this research. This thesis was made possible in part by scholarship grants from the