THE PATH TO A NEW AWAKENING: B. R. AMBEDKAR’S TRANSFORMATION OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY MACARENA ALAMO SANTOS Thesis submitted to the University of Ottawa in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts Philosophy Department of Philosophy Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Macarena Alamo Santos, Ottawa, Canada, 2021 Abstract The objective of this thesis is to analyze the philosophical implications of Ambedkar’s approach to Buddhism. This approach created a new social philosophy based on Buddhist ideas and a political commitment to social justice, particularly for the Dalits of India. What was the purpose of this social philosophy? To transform Buddhist philosophy? Or rather, to oppose Brahmanism and empower the lower castes? After a twenty-year-long study of Indian society and history, and Indian philosophical and religious traditions, Ambedkar came to the conclusion that Buddhism could have the power to transform the situation of the Untouchables. Why did he think that Buddhism would have this radical transformative impact not only for Dalits, but for Indian society as a whole? In 1956, in what became a historical event, he led a movement of conversion of more than five hundred thousand Untouchables from Hinduism to Buddhism. Ambekdar saw Buddhism as a way and as a tool to empower the lower castes of India. But what type of Buddhism did he envision? In 1956, in that historical event, Ambedkar founded what he called Navayana Buddhism. He used the word Navayana to refer to the birth of a new school. Nava means “new,” Yana means “vehicle”. Was he indeed creating a new yana, or new vehicle? What type of Buddhist school was this? What innovations did he introduce? Is the result still Buddhism, given Ambedkar's vision? This thesis aims to address all these questions. !II Acknowledgements I would like to thank professor Sonia Sikka for being the best thesis supervisor I could ever imag- ine. Her work, wisdom, and guidance at every step have been an invaluable source not only of academic, but also of personal growth. Thanks to Professor Catherine Collobert and Professor Chinnaiah Jangam .Their commitment inside and outside the University, and their work for their communities have been deeply inspiring. Thanks to my family for always being there and also to Bob Goodfellow and Ellie Barrington, my family in Ottawa. They have been my biggest support in the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to thank professor Mitia Rioux-Beaulne and Vicky Nduwamungu, and their al- ways kind words and wise guidance. Lastly, thanks to the Department of Philosophy at the University of Ottawa, faculty members and staff, for making this thesis possible. It is an honour for me to be part of it. !III Table of Contents: Introduction 1 1. Buddhism and Engaged Buddhism 4 1.1. Buddhism and Buddhist Schools 4 1.1.1. What is Buddhism? 5 1.1.2. Common Buddhist Teachings 7 1. No-Self and Dependent Arising 7 2. Karma and Rebirth 8 3. The Four Noble Truths 9 4. The Eightfold Path 10 5. Nirvana 11 1.1.3. The Buddha’s Historical Context 12 1.1.4. The Buddhist Canon and The Buddha’s Dhamma 13 1.1.5. Main Buddhist Schools 14 1. Theravada 15 2. Mahayana 16 3. Vajrayana 17 4. East Asian Buddhism 18 1.2. What is Engaged Buddhism? 19 1.2.1. The Birth of Engaged Buddhism 21 1.2.2. Buddhist Ethics 23 1.2.3. Engaged Buddhist Practices and Buddhist Schools 25 1.2.4. Engaged Buddhism as a New School 26 2. Navayana Buddhism: Context, Purpose, and Influences 27 2.1. Navayana Buddhism: Context and Purpose 27 2.1.1. Ambedkar’s Life and His Conversion to Buddhism 27 2.1.2. Ambedkar’s Three Main Questions 28 !IV 2.1.3. Why Did Ambedkar Choose Buddhism? 29 2.1.4. A New School of Buddhism 29 2.1.5. Characteristics of Navayana Buddhism 30 2.1.6. A New Balance Between Religion and Science 31 2.1.7. Focus On The Ethical and The Social 32 2.1.8. Universalism Versus Nationalism 33 2.2. Philosophical Influences of Ambedkar’s Buddhism 34 2.2.1. Indian Tradition, Buddhist Philosophy, and Western Thought 34 2.2.2. Non-Buddhist Sources 36 2.2.3. Buddhist Sources 38 • Ambedkar’s Hermeneutic Principles 39 • Theravada and Mahayana 39 2.2.4. Karl Marx 40 3. The Buddha and His Dhamma: Elements of Analysis and Innovation 42 3.1. The Two Main Questions 43 3.2. The Cause of Suffering 47 3.2.1. Brahmanic Philosophy 50 3.3. The Three Paths to The End of Suffering 54 3.4. The Buddha’s Teachings 60 3.4.1. The Role of a New Spiritual Leader 61 3.4.2. The Six Elements of a New Dhamma 63 3.4.3. The Eight Boundaries of a New Dhamma 64 3.4.4. The Philosophy of a New Dhamma 66 1. The Purpose of Navayana Buddhism 66 2. Pradnya 68 3. Maitri 68 4. The Buddha’s Social Message 69 3.5. Ambekdar’s Hermeneutic Principles 71 !V 3.6. The Theory of Anatta 75 3.7. The Theory of Rebirth 78 3.8. The Theory of Karma 80 1. Hinduism Versus Buddhism 80 2. Karma as the Foundation of Social Oppression 83 • The Law of Karma Creates the Social Order 85 3.9. The Theory of Nirvana 86 4. Navayana Buddhism and Other Engaged Forms of Spirituality 90 4.1. Navayana Buddhism and Liberation Theology 90 4.1.1. Jesus and The Buddha 91 4.1.2. Liberation Theology 93 4.1.3. The Process of Integral Liberation 97 4.1.4. Cultivating Will and Compassion 100 4.2. Navayana Buddhism and Engaged Buddhism 102 4.2.1. Meditation and Social Change 103 4.2.2. The Bodhisattva and Nirvana 105 4.2.3. Is Engaged Buddhism The Fourth Yana? 106 4.3. Ambedkar and Thich Nhat Hanh 110 4.3.1. Hermeneutic Principles 111 4.3.2. Guidelines for Engaged Buddhism 114 4.3.3. Two Leaders: Conclusion 118 5. Conclusion 118 6. Bibliography 123 !VI Introduction The objective of this thesis is to analyze the philosophical implications of Ambedkar’s approach to Buddhism. This approach created a new social philosophy based on Buddhist ideas and a political commitment to social justice, particularly for the Dalits1 of India. What was the purpose of this social philosophy? To transform Buddhist philosophy? Or rather, to oppose Brahmanism and empower the lower castes? Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was one of the founding fathers of the Republic of India. He was a jurist, economist, politician, and social reformer who dedicated his life to supporting the rights of the Untouchables and ending discrimination against them in Indian society. Ambedkar himself was an Untouchable, from the Mahar caste. Being an Untouchable is a designation that comes from the Hindu caste system that assigns each person into a specific caste from birth. To be an Untouchable is to be considered as contaminated from birth. Even today Untouchables, along with other lower castes, face violence and discrimination from the higher castes, particularly in access to jobs and education. The Constitution of India, one of whose main architects was Ambedkar, takes great steps to guarantee equality and fundamental rights for all members of the Indian society: It makes untouchability illegal, and it prohibits discrimination on the basis of caste. However, this social discrimination still exists, because it is an intrinsic part of the Hindu caste system and has been part of Indian society for thousands of years. One of Ambedkar’s objectives was to bring this situation to an end and he worked throughout his life to make that possible. Even today we see how relevant and alive his message is. Thousands of people in India hold Ambedkar’s image as a symbol of freedom and equality, against the violence and oppression against lower castes that successive governments have failed to eradicate. Ambedkar became the leader of a movement for the liberation of the Untouchables and worked for a transformation of Indian society. He wondered, however, if this deep transformation would really be possible within the Hindu social system Would Hinduism support the end of the discrimination suffered 1 Dalit is a Sanskrit and Hindi word that means “broken” and it refers to the members of those castes who were subjected to untouchability. Untouchability is a practice of discrimination and segregation that took place in India and other regions for thousands of years. In the 1930s Ambedkar used the term “Dalit” to refer to all oppressed, poor, or discriminated members of society, including women. Its use grew during the 1970s, when it was used by the group Dalit Panthers. Modern legislation prefers the term “Scheduled Castes” which is considered an official term. !1 by Dalits for thousands of years under their caste system? After a twenty-year-long study of Indian society and history, and Indian philosophical and religious traditions, Ambedkar came to the conclusion that Buddhism could have the power to transform the situation of the Untouchables. Why did he think that Buddhism would have this radical transformative impact not only for Dalits, but for Indian society as a whole? In 1956, in what became a historical event, he led a movement of conversion of more than five hundred thousand Untouchables from Hinduism to Buddhism. Ambekdar saw Buddhism as a way and as a tool to empower the lower castes of India. But what type of Buddhism did he envision? In 1956, in that historical event, Ambedkar founded what he called Navayana Buddhism.