Teaching of psychology in countries with advanced versus developing economies Martin Pinquart & Allan B.I. Bernardo We compare structures and contents of psychology programmes from countries with developing and advanced economies. Respondents from 49 countries completed a survey of the International Union of Psychological Science on psychology education and training. In general, there are more similarities than differences between countries with developing and advanced economies. Nonetheless, large differences emerge with regard to the availability of international teaching resources. The transition rate from the lowest academic degree to programmes at the next level is much lower in countries with developing economies than in countries with advanced economies (25 per cent vs. 70 per cent). In addition, programmes from the former countries have higher student-faculty ratios and use lab sessions, seminars and tutorials less often. Differential and biological psychology/neuropsychology is less often taught in the former countries. In addition, there is larger variability of the quality of programmes within countries with developing economies. Conclusions are drawn for improving psychology education and training. Keywords: Psychology education; psychological training; teaching; cross-cultural psychology. SYCHOLOGY as a scientific discipline Papers on teaching of psychology have and a topic of study has its origins in been published from a number of countries, PEurope. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), for example, in the European Psychologist the founder of the world’s first laboratory of (Lunt, 2005; Newstead & Makinen, 1997), in experimental psychology in Leipzig a special issue of the International Journal of (Germany) held his first lecture in 1875 Psychology (Karandashiev & McCarthy, 2006), (Fuchs & Milar, 2003). Psychology spread to in Teaching Psychology Review (e.g. Georgas, other countries, and after World War II, the 1998; Ruiz, 2011), and in the three volumes US psychology gained an important impact of Teaching Psychology around the World on psychology around the world (Freedheim (McCarthy et al., 2007, 2009, 2012). However, & Weiner, 2003). Although results of these papers did not follow a common struc - research from the US form core contents of ture and are, therefore, difficult to compare. almost all recent textbooks in the field of In addition, results from a previous cross- psychology, and textbooks from the US are national survey on teaching psychology in 28 probably used in most countries of the countries (Nixon, 1994) and some of the world, individual countries have their own contents of other older papers are probably traditions with regard to structures and outdated because the systems of teaching contents of teaching psychology. Differences psychology change over time. between countries in the present structure In order to get comparable data across a and contents of teaching psychology reflect larger number of countries, the Interna - these traditions as well as national differ - tional Union of Psychological Science ences in particular needs (e.g. the degree of (IUPsyS) launched a work group on industrialisation and the structure of the psychology education and training. This educational system may affect the needs for group developed a questionnaire on that occupational and educational psychology), topic and asked the 82 national member and in the availability of material resources organisations of the IUPsyS (in most cases (e.g. with regard to access to international the National Society of Psychology or asso- journals and textbooks). ciations of National Societies) to fill out the 26 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 1, Spring 2014 © The British Psychological Society Teaching psychology in two groups of countries questionnaire online. In addition, psycho- cation systems. Furthermore, 20 countries logists from countries who attended two that were classified as advanced economies symposia on psychology education were would also be in the highest category of the asked to provide answers if we had not got a World Bank and 19 in the highest category response from their national professional of the UNDP (Nielsen, 2011), thus leading society. Responses from four countries were to similar classifications across the available added by this approach. Data were collected systems. between 2011 and June 2012. Finally, we got The average results of the survey across response from 49 countries and Hong Kong all participating countries are reported else - that is a special administrative region of the where (Pinquart & Bernardo, 2014). The People’s Republic of China but an individual present manuscript focuses on a comparison member of the IUPsyS. Two to three between CAE versus CDE. There are four responses were available from 11 countries reasons for making such a comparison. First, and were averaged for the present analysis. because psychology first developed in According to the International Monetary Western countries and spread thereafter to Fund (IMF), 29 of these countries are classi - other regions of the globe, we were inter - fied as countries with developing economies ested in whether similar structures and (CDE), based on criteria such as income programme contents would be found in levels and development of the financial both groups of countries. Second, because markets (IMF, 2012; Nielsen, 2011): these groups of countries differ in the Argentina, Armenia, Bahamas, Brazil, economical resources that could be invested Bulgaria, Cameroon, Colombia, Croatia, in the system of teaching, we were interested Georgia, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Kenya, in differences in teaching resources and Malaysia, Mexico, Paraguay, People’s programme quality. Third, probably most Republic of China, Philippines, Poland, psychological textbooks and most of their Russia, South Africa, Sudan, Thailand, contents come from the US and Western Turkey, Uganda, Uruguay, Venezuela, Europe. Thus, we were interested in whether Yemen, and Zimbabwe. The other 20 coun - cross-cultural psychology (such as the tries and Hong Kong were classified by the comparison of results from Western and IMF as countries with advanced economies non-Western countries) and indigenous (CAE): Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, psychology (topics and results specific to a Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Great particular culture) would play a larger role Britain, Greece, Hong Kong, Ireland, Italy, in CDE because some of the results from the Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Singapore, US and Western Europe may not be valid Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, and the under other cultural contexts (e.g. Sinha, US. Although different classifications of 1997; van de Vijver, Chasiotis & Breugel - countries have been suggested by the United mans, 2011). Finally, we searched for starting Nations Development Project (UNDP) and points for improving psychology education the World Bank, we followed the IMF of countries with both developing and because this classification provides a split advanced economies. into two main groups of countries while the The present paper will focus on four UNDP and the World Bank split into three topics: the general structure of programmes, and four groups, respectively (Nielsen, contents of teaching, forms of teaching, and 2011) which would lead to small numbers of quality of the programmes. Because of the participating countries per group. In addi - rather small number of countries per cate - tion, while Hong Kong is classified by the gory, we do not apply statistical tests. IMF, this is not the case in the other classifi - Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 20 No. 1, Spring 2014 27 Martin Pinquart & Allan B.I. Bernardo Results of the survey on consecutive programmes, although about psychology education and training one-fifth of them also have non-consecutive The history and structure of programmes programmes. The situation is more hetero - The first psychology departments were geneous in CDE. Although consecutive founded between 1879 (Germany) and 2005 programmes are also here the dominating (Singapore) in the participating CAE and form, 14 per cent of these countries only between 1918 (South Africa) and 1990 offer non-consecutive programmes. About (Cameroon) in CDE. On average, the first 18 per cent of the assessed countries full programmes that end with an academic offer consecutive and non-consecutive degree in the field of psychology started in programmes. 1944 in the CAE (range from 1900 in Great The average numbers of education facili - Britain to 1987 in Greece). Such pro- ties that offer programmes at Level 1 are grammes were, on average, launched 14 somewhat higher in CAE ( M=112, SD =312, years later in CDE ( M=1958, range from the range from 1 to 625) than in CDE ( M=97, 1920s in India to the 1990s in Bahamas and SD =166, range 2 to 1367). Between-group Cameroon). differences are larger with regard to Most of the assessed countries offer programmes at Level 2. On average, 57 consecutive programmes in the field of universities in CAE offer programmes at psychology, such as Bachelor (Level 1 Level 2 ( SD =155, range 2 to 652) while the degree) programmes followed by Master’s numbers are only half as large in CDE (Level 2 degree) programmes that continue (M=29, SD =52, range 1 to 200). Respondents and explore the subject matter in greater from four CAE and from five CDE reported depth. Non-consecutive predoctoral pro- that there are also predoctoral programmes grammes, such as a five-year diploma at a third or fourth level (e.g. programmes