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STUDIES IN GEOPHYSICS insert age breaks ally P Effects of Past Global Change on Life iles. ng f i t peset y http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4762.html Effects ofPastGlobalChangeonLife y have been accident a m Board on Earth Sciences and Resources he original t t Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources errors om r National Research Council f not pographic y t e som and riginal paper book, ned, i a he o t om r f be ret ed Copyright © National Academy ofSciences. Allrights reserved. cannot creat iles L f M X however, ng, i om t r f at rm o posed ic f ng-specif ion. i t been recom ibut r t has peset y t r at o f her and ot original work e ive version h t at yles, horit ion of at he aut heading st as t represent ion l a digit publicat word breaks, is hs, h t is new h of T ile: f line lengt F version D is P h t NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS he print t he original; t bout o Washington, D.C. 1995 A use t Effects of Past Global Change on Life http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4762.html ii NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20418 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose mem- bers are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engi- neering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organiza- tion of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering pro- grams aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appro- priate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and of advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council. Support for this activity was provided by the Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the riginal paper book, not the from original typesetting breaks files. Page are true National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. ned, andned,typographic some errors may have been accidentally inserted. Please Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Effects of past global change on life / Board on Earth Sciences and Resources, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-309-05127-4 1. Paleoecology. 2. Paleoclimatology. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Board on Earth Sciences and Resources. QE720.E32 1994 560'.45—dc20 94-38695 Copyright 1995 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America About this This PDF newfile: representation digital of original work the has been recomposed from createdXML files the from o the line lengths, word breaks,to original; heading styles,typesetting-specific and other formatting, however, cannot be retai use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Effects of Past Global Change on Life http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4762.html iii Panel on Effects of Past Global Change on Life STEVEN M. STANLEY, The Johns Hopkins University, Chairman JAMES P. KENNETT, University of California, Santa Barbara, Co-Vice Chairman ANDREW H. KNOLL, Harvard University, Co-Vice Chairman ROSEMARY A. ASKIN, University of California, Riverside ERIC J. BARRON, Pennsylvania State University WILLIAM B. BERRY, University of California, Berkeley DAVID C. CHRISTOPHEL, University of Adelaide, Australia WILLIAM A. DIMICHELE, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution BENJAMIN P. FLOWER, University of California, Santa Barbara ERLE G. KAUFFMAN, University of Colorado GERTA KELLER, Princeton University WILLIAM F. RUDDIMAN, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory ROBERT A. SPICER, Oxford University, U.K. S. DAVID WEBB, University of Florida THOMPSON WEBB III, Brown University Staff THOMAS M. USSELMAN, Associate Director riginal paper book, not the from original typesetting breaks files. Page are true JUDITH ESTEP, Administrative Assistant ned, andned,typographic some errors may have been accidentally inserted. Please About this This PDF newfile: representation digital of original work the has been recomposed from createdXML files the from o the line lengths, word breaks,to original; heading styles,typesetting-specific and other formatting, however, cannot be retai use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution. Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. iv http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4762.html Effects ofPastGlobalChangeonLife riginal paper book, not the from original typesetting breaks files. Page are true ned, andned,typographic some errors may have been accidentally inserted. Please Copyright © National Academy ofSciences. Allrights reserved. About this This PDF newfile: representation digital of original work the has been recomposed from createdXML files the from o the line lengths, word breaks,to original; heading styles,typesetting-specific and other formatting, however, cannot be retai use the print version of this publication as the authoritative version for attribution. Effects of Past Global Change on Life http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4762.html v Board on Earth Sciences and Resources FREEMAN GILBERT, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif., Chair GAIL M. ASHLEY, Rutgers University, Piscataway, N.J. THURE CERLING, University of Utah, Salt Lake City MARK P. CLOOS, University of Texas at Austin NEVILLE G.W. COOK, University of California, Berkeley JOEL DARMSTADTER, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C. DONALD J. DEPAOLO, University of California, Berkeley MARCO EINAUDI, Stanford University, Stanford, Calif. NORMAN H. FOSTER, Independent Petroleum Geologist, Denver, Colo. CHARLES G. GROAT, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge DONALD C. HANEY, Kentucky Geological Survey, Lexington ANDREW H. KNOLL, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. PHILIP E. LAMOREAUX, P.E. LaMoreaux and Associates, Inc., Tuscaloosa, Ala. SUSAN LANDON, Thomasson Partner Associates, Denver, Colo. MARCIA K.