A critical examination of the significance of Arabic in realizing an Arab identity: The perspectives of Arab youth at an English medium university in the United Arab Emirates Submitted by Laila Suleiman Dahan to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education in April 2015 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature…………………………………………………………… 1 Abstract In the past few years in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) there has been an overwhelming focus on the use of English at all levels of education, in both public and private schools. In addition, the UAE has given English a fairly central role in both the educational sphere and within society. This rapid spread of English has caused concern among members of the general public, some political figures, and the media. Much of the concern with the spread of English is that the language is taking away from young people’s attachment to and fluency in Arabic. In addition, there is a major concern that any loss of Arabic is tantamount to a loss of Arab identity. The discourse of Arabic as an identity marker needs to be assessed in order to determine the validity of these concerns. In order to evaluate this discourse, this study examines how students, who are native speakers of Arabic, perceive their Arab identity. This is done in two ways: first, by asking them to articulate their perceptions about their own Arab identities, and secondly by asking them to discuss their use of both languages. The study asks the students directly what they believe marks their Arab identity. The research for this thesis took place at an American curriculum, English medium university in the UAE. The data for the study was collected in two ways, through a questionnaire that 304 Arabic speaking students completed, followed by semi-structured interviews with 12 of those students. The findings of this study reveal that Arab youth living in the UAE have a complex Arab identity which is made up of a variety of markers or affiliations. Most participants were unable to state definitively that Arabic was the main marker of their Arab identity, or even a major marker. In a world of globalization and global English, these Arab youth have found another language in which to communicate. They see both Arabic and English as resources for facilitating communication, and do not see a strict bond between Arabic and an Arab identity. The participants view their identity as fluid and display agency in their understanding of their Arab identity and in how they use both languages. The 2 results reveal that there is some concern with a loss of Arabic literacy, but there seems to be very little concern about any loss of Arab identity. Overall the findings show that researching Arab identity is a complicated process, and the responses that are garnered show how complex this process is in the UAE. Based on these findings, it is argued that in this particular setting within the UAE, Arabic is not looked upon as an identity marker. However, due to the paucity of research directly interrogating Arabic and Arab identity construction in the Arab world, this study recommends that further studies be carried out in other institutions of higher education in the UAE, where students may not be as proficient in English, and in other Arab nations where English is perhaps not as firmly entrenched. 3 Acknowledgements There are many people who were instrumental in helping me complete this long project. First, I would like to thank Dr. Sarah Rich for her support during the writing of this research. Her insight helped me organize my thoughts and remain focused despite the many drafts and years this has taken to complete. I also wish to thank Dr. Martin Levinson for his input and advice. I am grateful to my colleagues who granted me access to their classrooms in order to obtain the needed survey data. I am especially thankful to the many students who took part in this research and spent their time sharing stories about their Arab identities. I also wish to extend my thanks to my friends who have listened to me over the years, as I worried about completing this thesis: Shelley, Lynn V., Gail, Thikra, Manal, Susan, Lynne R., Dana, Jean, and Cathy. My greatest support has always come from my family. Special thanks goes to my brother and sister, Aziz and Ida, who have continually shown their love and encouragement throughout this long endeavor. Despite how far apart we are geographically; they are always in my corner. Although my parents have been gone for many years; they are always with me, and I am grateful for all the encouragement they gave me to follow my dreams. Finally, I dedicate this work to my two wonderful sons, Saif and Omar Al-Issa. I appreciate their patience during this process and their words of advice and encouragement, even when they had to wait for me to finish writing something. Thank you my sweet boys, for being you, for being understanding, and for being the wonderful young men you are growing up to be. 4 List of Tables and Figures Figure 2.1 Map of the Arab world 20 Table 4.1 Summary of the data collection activities 72 Table 4.2 Number of students participating in first stage of the study 73 Table 4.3 Nationalities of those completing the questionnaire 74 Table 4.4 Number of students participating in second stage of the study 74 Table 4.5 Interview participants 75 Table 4.6 Structure of the questionnaire 78 Table 4.7 Research questions/themes and corresponding questionnaire items 80 Table 5.1 Participants’ views on identity 101 Table 5.2 Participants’ perceptions of their own culture 101 Table 5.3 Participants’ perceptions of belonging to Arab and western culture 101 Table 5.4 Participants’ views on pre-chosen identity markers 103 Table 5.5 Themes resulting from my thematic analysis 104 Table 5.6 Participants’ views on Arabic as an identity marker 106 Table 5.7 Participants’ perceptions of Arabic as a defining feature of an Arab 106 Table 5.8 Participants’ consideration of other identity markers 107 Table 5.9 Participants’ responses to language use with friends 109 Table 5.10 Participants’ responses to language use with parents 109 Table 5.11 Participants’ responses to language use with siblings 109 Table 5.12 Participants’ perceptions on using English for their studies 110 Table 5.13 Participants’ responses to the language they use at university 111 Table 5.14 Participants’ responses to the language for reading newspapers 111 5 Table 5.15 Participants’ perceptions of which language they think better in 112 Table 5.16 Participants’ perceptions of language which expresses their feelings 112 Table 5.17 Participants’ perceptions of their most expressive language 113 Table 5.18 Globalization is harmful to Arab identity 114 Table 5.19 Globalization is harmful to the Arabic language 115 Table 5.20 Speaking English has affected my attitude towards Arab culture 115 Table 5.21 Speaking English makes me feel distant from Arab culture 115 Table 5.22 Speaking English makes it difficult to maintain an Arab identity 116 Table 5.23 Speaking English has affected the way I relate to my family 117 Table 5.24 I have concerns that I speak English more than Arabic 117 Table 5.25 Speaking English will give me better opportunities for the future 119 Table 5.26 Speaking English has affected my interpretation of world events 119 Table 5.27 Speaking English has affected my attitude towards western culture 119 Table 6.1 Markers of an Arab identity 123 6 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 4 List of Tables and Figures 5 Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study 11 1.0 Introduction 11 1.1 Rationale for the study 12 1.2 Aims of the study 15 1.3 Significance of the study 15 1.4 Organization of the study 18 Chapter 2. Background to the Study 19 2.0 Introduction 19 2.1 Towards a definition of an Arab identity 19 2.1.1 Who are the Arabs? 19 2.1.2 Arab identity as an ethno-regional identity 21 2.2 Arabic, Arab identity and global English 23 2.3 Arab identity and globalization: the case of the UAE 26 2.3.1 Language use in the UAE 27 2.3.2 Education and language policy in the UAE 28 2.3.3 Tertiary education in the UAE 30 2.4 Emirates American University (EAU) 31 2.5 Conclusion 33 Chapter 3. Literature Review 34 3.0 Introduction 34 3.1 Towards an understanding of identity: trends and debates in identity research 35 3.1.1 Different traditions within identity research 35 3.1.2 Identity in the field of applied linguistics 37 3.1.3 Debates about the relationship between language and identity construction 37 3.2 Theorizing the relationship between language and ethnic identity: competing perspectives 38 3.2.1 The Social Identity Theory perspective on the relationship between ethnicity and language 38 3.2.1.1 SIT and the concept of ethnolinguistic identity 40 3.2.1.2 Reflections on the contributions of SIT 40 3.2.2 Post-structuralist perspectives on identity construction 42 3.2.2.1 The impact of globalization on identity construction 42 3.2.2.2 The disconnect between language and ethnic identity 43 3.2.2.3 Discourse, power, and identity construction 46 3.2.2.4 Agency and identity construction 50 3.3 Implications on the relationship between identity and language 53 3.3.1 Factors influencing language choice 54 3.3.1.1 Local affiliations or domains 55 7 3.3.1.2 Situational 56 3.3.1.3 Investment and language choices 57 3.4 Emotions, language, and identity construction 60 3.5 The theoretical framework underpinning the study 60 3.6 Previous studies related to the research topic 62 3.7 Conclusion 64 Chapter 4.