Radiological Emissions-I Ghulam Rasul Athar Applied Systems Analysis Group, Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, P.O. Box 1114, Islamabad, Pakistan [email protected] IAEA Workshop on the ‘Use of the SimPacts Model for Estimating Human Health and Environmental Damages from Electricity Generation’ Trieste, Italy, May 12-23, 2003. Overview of the Presentation • Explanation of some terms used in radiation protection • Nuclear fuel cycle • NukPacts Becquerel (Bq) Becquerel is the basic unit of radioactivity. One Becquerel is equal to one disintegration per second. 1 Bq=2.7E-11 Ci One Ci = 3.7E+10 Bq Absorbed Dose When ionizing radiation interacts with the human body, it gives its energy to the body tissues. The amount of energy absorbed per unit weight of the organ or tissue is called absorbed dose. Absorbed dose is expressed in units of gray (Gy). One gray dose is equivalent to one joule radiation energy absorbed per kilogram of organ or tissue weight. Rad is the old and still used unit of absorbed dose. One gray is equivalent to 100 rads. (1 Gy = 100 rads) Equivalent Dose • Equal doses of all types of ionizing radiation are not equally harmful. • Alpha particles produce greater harm than do beta particles, gamma rays and x rays for a given absorbed dose. • To account for this difference, radiation dose is expressed as equivalent dose. • Equivqlent Dose is equal to "absorbed dose" multiplied by a "radiation weighting factor" (WR). • Equivalent Dose is measured in Sievert (Sv). • The dose in Sv (Equivalent Dose) = Dose x WR. • Prior to 1990, this weighting factor was referred to as Quality Factor (QF). Some Recommended Radiation Weighting Factors Gamma rays and x rays 1 Beta particles 1 Neutrons, energy < 10 keV 5 > 10 keV to 100 keV 10 > 100 keV to 2 MeV 20 Alpha particles 20 Conversion between units The old unit of “dose equivalent" or "dose" was rem. Dose in Sv = Absorbed Dose in Gy x radiation weighting factor (WR) Dose in rem = Dose in rad x QF 1 Sv = 100 rem 1 rem = 10 milli Sievert TissueTissue Weighting Weighting Factors Factors dose = sum of [organ doses x tissue weighting factor] Tissue weighting factors represent sensitivity of organs for developing cancer. Tissue Weighting Factors for Individual Tissues and Organs Tissue or Organ Tissue Weighting Tissue or Organ Tissue Weighting Factor (WT) Factor (WT) Ovaries 0.20 Liver 0.05 Bone marrow 0.12 Thyroid gland 0.05 Colon 0.12 Skin 0.01 Lung 0.12 Bone surfaces 0.01 Stomach 0.12 Remainder** 0.05 Bladder 0.05 Whole body 1.00 Breast 0.05 ** The remainder is composed of the following additional tissue and organs: adrenal, brain, upper large intestine, small intestine, kidney, muscle, pancreas, spleen, thymus and uterus. Effects of Different Doses of Radiation on Human Health The effects of being exposed to large doses of radiation at one time (acute exposure) vary with the dose. Here are some examples: 10 Sv – Risk of death within days or weeks 1 Sv – Risk of cancer later in life (5 in 100) 100 mSv – Risk of cancer later in life (5 in 1000 ) Limits of Exposure to Radiations • The ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection) , a non-governmental body of experts establishes basic principles for, and issues recommendations on, radiation protection. • The ICRP recommends that any exposure above the natural background radiation should be kept as low as reasonably achievable, but below the individual dose limit. • For general public ICRP recommends 1mSv per year. • For radiation workers ICRP recommends 100 mSv over 5 years Nuclear Fuel Cycle Nuclear Fuel Cycle Fuel Mining Conversion Milling Fabrication Power Enrichment Plant Spent Fuel Reprocessing Cooling Fission Product Recycled Plutonium Waste Storage ) Recycle Uranium Sale or Sale or Store Store Radioactive Releases from Nuclear Fuel Cycle • Mining and Milling Gaseous: Rn-222, U-234, U-235, U-238 Liquid: U-234, U-235, U-238 • Conversion,Enrichment, Fuel Fabrication Gaseous: U-234, U-235, U-238 Liquid: U-234, U-235, U-238 Radioactive Releases from Nuclear Fuel Cycle • Electricity Generation Gaseous: H-3, C-14, Co-58, Kr-85, I-131, I-133, Xe-133, Cs-134, Cs-137 Liquid: H-3, Mn-54, Co-58, Ag-110, Sb-124, I-131, Cs-134, Cs-137 • Reprocessing Gaseous: H-3, C-14, Kr-85, I-129, I-131,I-133, Pu-238, Pu-239 Liquid: H-3,C-14,Co-60,Sr-90, Ru-106, I- 129, Sb-125, Cs-134,Cs-137, U-238, Pu-238 Pu-239, Am-241 Uranium usage chain for 1 TWh of electricity generation Uranium resources 100 Mt of ore Water 105 tons residues, tailings, 0.33x1012 Bq Radon land, Mining and milling energy to atmosphere, plus other liquid wastes and dust 26 tons of natural Uranium Energy residues, effluents from energy (33GWh of Conversion and enrichment conversions (depending on source) electricity ( gas diffusion process ) 4 tons enriched uranium Energy Fuel element fabrication Trace amounts of radon etc Cooling Airborne radioactivity (about 555x1012 Bq, Water Reactor (light water) mostly noble gases) roughly 50t of radioactive liquid wastes Decommissioning Reprocessing of 23 Kg radioactive noble 1 TWh of Impacts (radioactive spent fuel gases released to waste accident etc) electricity atmosphere More than 3 tons of near- natural uranium for possible recycling to 38 kg Pu for recycle to 115 Kg highly radioactive waste 15 Bq after 10 year), for possible enrichment plant new fuel fabrication (37x10 deposition Source:Source: [see [see note note] ] Collective Doses (%) for the Stages of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Once through Multi recycling Others, Mining & 2.39% Miling, Mining & H.L.W, 10.53% Miling, 2.2% 4.78% Others, 1.5% Electricity generation, 17.2% Electricity Reprocessing generation, , 79.1% 82.30% Source: ExternE (1995) Nuclear Power Plants in World Operational Under Type Construction Units GWe Units GWe Total 437 358 33 27 Of which PWR 48.7% 56.6% 24.2% 28.3% BWR 21.1% 22.5% 15.2% 23.6% WWER 11.4% 9.2% 30.3% 30.7% PHWR 8.0% 4.8% 27.3% 14.0% GCR 5.9% 3.0% - - Others 4.8% 3.8% 3.0% 3.4% Source: IAEA (2003) Pathways for the Atmospheric Releases of Radionuclides Discharge Dispersion Deposition Air Soil Vegetation Animal External βγ Ingestions Inhalation Irradiation Human Health Monetary Evaluation Pathways for the Liquid Discharge of Radionuclides into Aquatic Environment Liquid Discharge Dispersion Fish and Irrigation of Seafood Crops Ingestion Human Health Monetary Evaluation NukPacts Scope of NukPacts (1/3) • Mining and Milling Gaseous:±± Rn-222, U-234, U-235, U-238 Liquid: U-234, U-235, U-238 • Conversion,Enrichment, Fuel Fabrication Gaseous: U-234,±± U-235, U-238 Liquid: U-234, U-235, U-238 Scope of NukPacts (2/3) • Electricity Generation Gaseous: H-3, C-14, Co-58, Kr-85, I-131, I-133, Xe-133, Cs-134, Cs-137 Liquid: H-3, Mn-54,33 Co-58, Ag-110, Sb-124, I-131, Cs-134, Cs-137 • Reprocessing Gaseous: H-3, C-14, Kr-85, I-129, I-131,I-133, Pu-238, Pu-239 Liquid: H-3,C-14,Co-60,Sr-90,±± Ru-106, I- 129, Sb-125, Cs-134,Cs-137, U-238, Pu-238 Pu-239, Am-241 Scope of NukPacts (3/3) Environmental releases of nuclear power plant ¾ Routine operation Atmospheric emission * 3 Effluent ± Solid waste** ± Spent fuel ± ¾ Accident ± * Excluding Global Impacts ** Contaminate protective clothing, filters, resins, etc. Methodology of NukPacts Impact Pathway for the Atmospheric Discharge of Nuclear Power Plant Source Radionuclide Released in the air from a PWR Radionuclide Half-life Radionuclide Half-life Transport & Kr-85 10.7 y I-134 52.6 min Dispersion Kr-87 76.3 min I-135 6.6 h Kr-88 2.8 h Cs-134 2.1 y Xe-133 5.2 d Cs-136 13.1d Deposition Xe-135 9.2 h Cs-137 30 y Xe-138 14.0 min Co-58 71 d Human I-131 8.1 d Co-60 5.3 y Exposure I-132 2.3 h C-14 5710 y Expected Health I-133 21 h H-3 13.3 y Impacts Monetary Valuation Impact Pathway for the Atmospheric Discharge of Nuclear Power Plant The most important radionuclide releases in the air from 4x900 MWe PWR unit at Tricastin in 1991 Source (for 20.84 TWh) Radionuclide MBq/year Transport & H-3 3.5 million Dispersion Co-58 11.3 Co-60 11.3 Deposition Kr-85 1.75 million I-131 67.1 Human I-133 135 Exposure Xe-133 24.5 million Expected Health Cs-134 11.3 Impacts Cs-137 11.3 C-14* 0.3 million Monetary * estimates Valuation Source: ExternE (1995) Impact Pathway for the Atmospheric Discharge of Nuclear Power Plant Source The annual average air concentration (Bq/m3 ) is calculated using the Transport & Gaussian plume dispersion model. Dispersion The basic data required to estimate ground-level concentrations of Deposition radionuclide • The emission strength of each Human radionuclide, Exposure • The average annual wind speed; • The effective release height; and Expected Health • The appropriate “Pasquil-Gifford Impacts Stability Categories Monetary Valuation Wind Speed at Release Height p Wind Speed at release height = Vk x hk hr Vk = Wind speed at known height (m/see) hk = known height hr = release height p = exponent which varies with atmospheric stability Stability Class Urban Rural A 0.15 0.07 B 0.15 0.07 C 0.20 0.10 D 0.25 0.15 E 0.40 0.35 F 0.60 0.55 Estimation of Pasquill Stability Classes Wind speed at 10m Weather Stability class Example 1.0 to 2.5 very sunny A - very unstable 1% 1.0 to 5.0 sunny B - moderately unstable 5% C - slightly unstable 15% 2.0 to 6.0 part cloud (day) 2.0 to >10.0 overcast D - neutral 65% 2.0 to 5.0 part cloud (night) E - stable 6% 2.0 to 3.0 clear night F - very stable 8% Total 100% Impact Pathway for the Atmospheric Discharge of Nuclear Power Plant Source Transport & Dispersion Wi=Ci x Vd Wi = average flux of radionuclide i Deposition (Bq/m2.s) Ci = annual average air concentration 3 Human of radionuclide i (Bq/m ), Exposure determined by Gaussian Plume model Expected Health Vd = average wet and dry deposition Impacts velocity (m/s) Monetary Valuation Impact Pathway for the Atmospheric Discharge of Nuclear Power Plant Source Transport & The most important pathways for health Dispersion of the general public resulting from atmospheric releases are : Deposition i.