THE USE OF P R O B L E M S, A L T E R N A T I V E S , & RECOMMENDA T I O N S HUMANE SOCIETY PR E S S by Jonathan Balcombe, Ph.D. PUBLIC PO L I C Y SE R I E S Public Policy Series THE USE OF An i m a l s IN Higher Ed u c a t i o n P R O B L E M S, A L T E R N A T I V E S , & RECOMMENDA T I O N S by Jonathan Balcombe, Ph.D. Humane Society Press an affiliate of Jonathan Balcombe, Ph.D., has been associate director for education in the Animal Res e a r ch Issues section of The Humane Society of the United States since 1993. Born in England and raised in New Zealand and Canada, Dr . Balcombe studied biology at York University in Tor onto before obtaining his masters of science degree from Carleton University in Ottawa and his Ph.D. in ethology at the University of Tennessee. Ack n ow l e d g m e n t s The author wishes to thank Andrew Rowan, Martin Stephens, Gretchen Yost, Marilyn Balcombe, and Francine Dolins for reviewing and commenting on earlier versions of this monograph. Leslie Adams, Kathleen Conlee, Lori Do n l e y , Adrienne Gleason, Daniel Kos s o w , and Brandy Richardson helped with various aspects of its research and preparation. Copyright © 2000 by The Humane Society of the United States. All rights reserve d . No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. First edition ISBN 0-9658942-1-5 Printed in the United States of America The Humane Society Pre s s A program of The Humane Society of the United States 2100 L Street, NW Washington, DC 20037 Contents Ack n o w l e d g m e n t s . ii For e w o r d . .v i List of Tab l e s . v 1. In t ro d u c t i o n . 1 1. 1 Scope of This Monograph. 1 1. 2 Historical Use of Animals in Education . 2 2. The Quality and Integrity of Science Educati o n . .5 2. 1 In t ro d u c t i o n . 5 2. 2 Scientific Literacy in America . 5 2. 3 “Hands-on” versus Active Lea r n i n g . 7 2. 4 Co n c l u s i o n . 8 2. 5 Rec o m m e n d a t i o n s . 8 3. So c i o l o gical Issues . 9 3. 1 In t ro d u c t i o n . 9 3. 2 Student Feelings and Att i t u d e s . 10 Qualitative Studies. 13 Sq u e a m i s h n e s s . 15 De s e n s i t i z a t i o n . 15 3. 3 Teacher Influence. 17 3. 4 Alienation from Science. 19 3. 5 Teaching to Care . 20 3. 6 Rec o m m e n d a t i o n s . 22 iii iv The Use of Animals in Higher Education 4. Animal Dissection in Educati o n . .23 4. 1 In t ro d u c t i o n . 23 4. 2 Prevalence of Dissection. 23 The United States . 23 Eu ro p e . 25 4. 3 Procurement and Animal Suffering . 26 Frog Supply . 26 PE T A’s Investigation of CBSC . 28 Other Investigations . 29 Animal Shelters . 30 Farmed Animals . 31 Fur -Bearing Animals. 32 4. 4 Ecological Concerns . 32 Frog s . 32 Sh a r k s . 33 4. 5 Formaldehyde Exposure . 34 4. 6 Defenders of Dissection . 35 Sc h r ock (1990) . 35 Pancoast (1991). 36 Holden (1990) . 37 Hamm and Blum (1992) . 38 Biological Var i a t i o n . 38 Other Argu m e n t s . 38 4. 7 Alternatives to Dissection . 39 Co m p u t e r -Assisted Lea r n i n g . 44 Cost of Alternatives . 44 Availability of Alternatives . 46 Ethical Dissection . 47 Outdoor Study of Animals . 48 4. 8 Rec o m m e n d a t i o n s . 49 5. Li ve-Animal Use in Educati o n . .51 5. 1 In t ro d u c t i o n . 51 5. 2 The Life Sciences. 51 Precollege Education . 51 Pos t s e c o n d a r y Education . 53 5. 3 Alternatives to Live-Animal Use . 55 5. 4 The Health Sciences. 57 Medical School. 57 Alternatives for Medical School . 58 Clinical Case-based Lea r n i n g . 60 Other Alternatives . 60 Vet e r i n a r y School. 62 Contents v Alternatives for Vet e r i n a r y Tra i n i n g . 63 Learning in the Clinical Setting . 65 5. 5 Science Fai r s . 67 5. 6 HSUS Rec o m m e n d a t i o n s . 68 6. La w and Pol i c y Issues . 69 6. 1 In t ro d u c t i o n . 69 6. 2 The Case for Student Choice . 70 6. 3 Legal Challenges . 73 6. 4 Current Laws and Pol i c i e s . 74 6. 5 International Pol i c.