University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2017 A Canadian Space Odyssey: Canada, the Great Space Powers, and the Space Power Dilemma McClelland, Kiernan McClelland, K. (2017). A Canadian Space Odyssey: Canada, the Great Space Powers, and the Space Power Dilemma (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/24640 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/4026 master thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY A Canadian Space Odyssey: Canada, the Great Space Powers, and the Space Power Dilemma by Kiernan McClelland A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF STRATEGIC STUDIES GRADUATE PROGRAM IN MILITARY AND STRATEGIC STUDIES CALGARY, ALBERTA AUGUST, 2017 © Kiernan McClelland 2017 Abstract Canada, despite being the third country to launch an artificial satellite, was unable to develop into a space power commanding a long-term strategic presence in outer space during the Cold War. Whereas the “great space powers” of the period, the United States and Soviet Union, held a dominant position in the space environment, Canada’s space power influence declined over the years. By analyzing declassified strategic documents and the strategic literature on space power, and by interviewing members of Canada’s national space organizations, this thesis will compare the strategic, political and economic variables that make a space power to determine why Canada did not maintain space supremacy when compared with the United States and Soviet Union from 1957 to 1991. This thesis concludes that Canada did not develop into a space power during the Cold War because, opposite the great space powers, the country did not have a comprehensive space strategy, political leadership and support, or the economic resources that would allow for the development of a long-term satellite presence. ii Acknowledgments The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to all advisors, interviewees, and participants who provided their time to help with this thesis. The author would like to thank personally Dr. Rob Huebert for his advice, conversations, and revisions and the thesis committee for reviewing this thesis. The author would also like to thank David and Neda McClelland, and Davina Basse, for their constant support which helped drive the completion of this thesis. iii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: In the Aftermath of Alouette: Re-evaluating Canada’s Strategic Space Policy during the Cold War ......................................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................1 1.2 The Space Power Dilemma and Canada’s Modern Space Assets ..........................................6 1.3 Research Question and Hypothesis ......................................................................................10 1.4 Research Methodology and Operationalization ...................................................................11 1.5 Why Study Canada’s Strategic Space Policy during the Cold War .....................................20 1.6 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................23 Chapter 2: Power in Space: Intellectualizing National Outer Space Activities through Space Power .............................................................................................................................................26 2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................26 2.2 The Theoretical Background of Space Power ......................................................................29 2.3 Satellite Orbits and the Topography of Outer Space ............................................................43 2.4 General Characteristics of Satellite Technologies................................................................50 2.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................54 Chapter 3: To Infinity and Beyond: Identifying the Underlying Descriptive Characteristics of Great Space Powers in the 20th Century Security Environment .........................................57 3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................57 3.2 The United States as a 20th Century Space Power ...............................................................60 3.3 The Soviet Union as a 20th Century Space Power ................................................................70 3.4 Ascertaining the Common Space Power Factors between the Cold War Superpowers in the 20th Century ................................................................................................................................78 3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................82 Chapter 4: Too Little, Too Late: Evaluating Canada’s National Space Activities during the Cold War and its Impact on Canadian Space Operations in the 20th Century ......................84 iv 4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................84 4.2 Strategic Factors of Canada’s National Space Activities during the Cold War ...................87 4.3 Political Factors of Canada’s National Space Activities during the Cold War ..................109 4.4 Economic Factors of Canada’s National Space Activities during the Cold War ...............114 4.5 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................119 Chapter 5: The Space Oddity: A Comparative Assessment of Space Power Variables between Canada and the Great Space Powers in the Cold War ...........................................123 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................123 5.2 Strategic Comparison between Canada and the Great Space Powers ................................125 5.3 Political Comparison between Canada and the Great Space Powers .................................130 5.4 Economic Comparison between Canada and the Great Space Powers ..............................136 5.5 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................138 Chapter 6: The Final Frontier: Delineating the Thesis’ Core Findings, Ramifications, and Future Areas of Research ..........................................................................................................142 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................142 6.2 Canada, the Great Space Powers, and the Space Power Dilemma ....................................143 6.3 Domestic and International Ramifications of Research Study ...........................................146 6.4 Future Research into Canada’s National Space Activities and Space Power ....................150 6.5 Concluding Remarks ..........................................................................................................153 Interviews .....................................................................................................................................155 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................156 v List of Tables Table 1.1 Synopsis of Strategic, Political, and Economic Factors and Variables of Space Power ……………………………………………………………………………………………………16 Table 3.1 Analysis of Great Space Powers in the 20th Century Security Environment……………80 Table 4.1 Evaluation of Canada’s National Space Activities in the 20th Century Security Environment.................................................................................................................................121 Table 5.1 Canada v. Superpowers – Space Power Variables Analysis Summary……………...139