Virginia Commonwealth University VCU Scholars Compass Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2018 Examination of the Role of Dehumanization as a Potential Mechanism Underlying the Racial Disparities in School Disciplinary Measures. Ebony A. Lambert Virginia Commonwealth University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd Part of the Other Education Commons, and the Social Psychology Commons © The Author Downloaded from https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/5656 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at VCU Scholars Compass. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of VCU Scholars Compass. For more information, please contact [email protected]. EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF DEHUMANIZATION AS A POTENTIAL MECHANISM UNDERLYING THE RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINARY MEASURES A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science at Virginia Commonwealth University By: Ebony A. Lambert B.A., College of William & Mary, May 2016 Director: Nao Hagiwara, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology Department of Psychology Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia November 2018 © Ebony A. Lambert 2018 All Rights Reserved Acknowledgments Thank you to my committee members, Drs. Zewelanji Serpell and Jacqueline McDonnough, for their insight and expertise. I would also like to extend a special note of gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Nao Hagiwara, for her support and guidance. I am grateful also to Kayla Sanon, Randl Dent, and Zoe Smith for their grace and encouragement during the course of my graduate career. My deepest gratitude to my parents, Kathy and Clifford Lambert Sr., for their unconditional support and care throughout my life and academic career. Finally, I thank my nieces and nephews Saiyon, Kaila, Quentin, and Mei, for their inspiration. This work is for them. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………...ii List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………. vi List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………. vii Abstract…….……………………………………………………………………………………...1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….3 Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………....4 Prevalence of Racial Disparities in School Disciplinary Measures………………………4 Consequences of Racial Disparities in School Disciplinary Measures……………………6 Evidence of Racial Bias as One Psychological Mechanism Underlying the Racial Disparities in School Disciplinary Measures……………………………………………………8 Different Forms of Racial Bias: The Importance of Dehumanization Process in the Racial Disparities in School Disciplinary Measures…………………………………...11 Factors that Mediate the Relationship between Dehumanization and Discriminatory Behaviors toward Black Americans…………………………………………………………...17 Empathy…………………………………………………………………………....17 Attribution of Mind……………………………………………………………….20 Perceived Threat…………………………………………………………………...22 The Present Study…………………………………………………………………………………...25 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………...…25 Hypotheses for Study 1 and Study 2……………………………………………………….26 Study 1: Correlational Study ……………………………………………………………………….27 Participants…………………………………………………………………………………28 Procedure……………………………………………………………………………….......28 Measures……………………………………………………………………………………29 Independent Variables…………………………………………………………….29 iii Dehumanization of Black Americans…………………………………....29 Demographic Information………………………………………………...30 Dependent Variables……………………………………………………………….30 Choice of Disciplinary Measure………………………………………….30 Perceived Effectiveness of Selected Disciplinary Measures……………...30 Perceived Harshness of Disciplinary Measures………………………….30 Mediators………………………………………………………………………….31 Empathy with the Student…………………………………………………31 Beliefs about Animal Learning……………………………………………31 Beliefs about Human Learning……………………………………………31 Perceived Threat of Physical Danger……………………………………...32 Perceived Threat of Classroom Misbehavior……………………………...32 Control Variables…………………………………………………….…………….32 Racial Bias…………………………………………………………………33 Analysis Plan…………………………………………………………………………..........33 Results………………………………………………………………………………………36 Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………………….........36 Hypothesis Testing…………………………………………………………………40 Binary Logistic Regression……………………………………………….40 Moderated Mediation…………………………………………………….42 Follow-up Analyses………………………………………………………44 Study 1 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………46 Study 2: Experimental Study………………………………………………………………….……46 Participants……………………………………………………………………………. ….47 Procedure………………………………………………………………………………….48 Analysis Plan……………………………………………………………………………….49 iv Results……………………………………………………………………………….……...52 Descriptive Statistics………………………………………………………………52 Hypothesis Testing…………………………………………………………………54 Binary Logistic Regression…………...…………………………………...54 Moderated Mediation……………………………………………………...56 Follow-up Analyses……………………………………………………….58 Study 2 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………...60 General Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………...61 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………...65 Future Directions…………………………………………………………………………….69 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………70 References……………………………………………………………………………………………71 Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………87 Vita…...…….…………………………………………………………………………………….......103 v List of Tables Table 1: Correlations among all main variables in Study 1...........................38 Table 2: Frequency and proportion of participants who gave the 1st-7th ranking within each disciplinary measure..............................................................................................40 Table 3: Logistic Binomial Regression: Dehumanization predicting Choice of Exclusionary Discipline controlling for Participant Age, Race, Implicit Bias, and Explicit Bias...................................................41 Table 4: Conditional indirect effects between dehumanization and disciplinary measure choice................................................................................................43 Table 5: Correlations among all main variables in Study 1 split by choice of exclusionary vs. teacher- mediated disciplinary measures........................................................45 Table 6: Frequency and proportion of participants who gave the 1st-7th ranking within each disciplinary measure.............................................................................................50 Table 7: Correlations among all main variables in Study 2...........................53 Table 8: Logistic Binomial Regression: Prime Condition predicting Choice of Exclusionary Discipline controlling for Participant Race, Dehumanization, Implicit Bias, and Explicit Bias...............................……………55 Table 9: Conditional indirect effects between dehumanization and disciplinary measure choice................................................................................................57 Table 10: Correlations among all main variables in Study 2 split by choice of exclusionary vs. teacher- mediated disciplinary measures........................................................59 vi List of Figures Figure 1: Study 1 Moderated mediation analysis predicting choice of exclusionary discipline................................................................................................36 Figure 2: Study 2 Moderated mediation analysis predicting choice of exclusionary discipline................................................................................................52 vii Abstract EXAMINATION OF THE ROLE OF DEHUMANIZATION AS A POTENTIAL MECHANISM UNDERLYING THE RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINARY MEASURES Ebony A. Lambert, B.A. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science at Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Commonwealth University 2018 Director: Nao Hagiwara, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology Department of Psychology Schools should be safe and supportive spaces for all students, yet Black students tend to face biased treatment in the education system, which often results in harsh disciplinary measures. This research examined the role of animalistic dehumanization (i.e., perceiving others as animal- like and uncultured and denying uniquely human characteristics), in predicting choice of harsher disciplinary measures for Black students as opposed to White students. It was hypothesized that individuals who dehumanize Black students to a greater degree would be more likely to believe that Black students need to be disciplined through harsher measures. Additionally, it was hypothesized that the link between dehumanization and choice of disciplinary measure would be mediated by empathy, attribution of mind, and/or perceived threat. Both Study 1 (in which dehumanization was assessed) and 2 (in which dehumanization was experimentally manipulated) failed to provide evidence supporting the role of dehumanization in differential choices of school disciplinary measures for Black vs. White students. However, both studies provided evidence 1 suggesting that dehumanization of and negative attitudes toward Black Americans are still prevalent and related in American society, and that animal learning perceptions and paradigms influence participant perceptions of threat from students and disciplinary decisions. These findings indicate a need for continued investigation of racial stereotypes about students when assessing racial disparities in school discipline. 2 Examination