University of St. Thomas, Minnesota UST Research Online Education Doctoral Dissertations in Leadership School of Education 2018 Childhood Experiences of Abuse Due to Cultural Superstition and Exclusion: A Story of Survival and the Healing Process Theresa Kashale Scholten University of St. Thomas, Minnesota, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.stthomas.edu/caps_ed_lead_docdiss Part of the Education Commons Recommended Citation Kashale Scholten, Theresa, "Childhood Experiences of Abuse Due to Cultural Superstition and Exclusion: A Story of Survival and the Healing Process" (2018). Education Doctoral Dissertations in Leadership. 131. https://ir.stthomas.edu/caps_ed_lead_docdiss/131 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the School of Education at UST Research Online. It has been accepted for inclusion in Education Doctoral Dissertations in Leadership by an authorized administrator of UST Research Online. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Childhood Experiences of Abuse Due to Cultural Superstition and Exclusion: A Story of Survival and the Healing Process BY THERESA KASHALE-SCHOLTEN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE EDUCATION FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF ST. THOMAS MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF ST. THOMAS, MINNESOTA ABSTRACT The purpose of this qualitative study was to describe the experiences of children enduring abuse due to their identification as enfant sorcerers and to expose the phenomenon of witch-hunts and abuse through the eyes and experiences of victims. I investigated how adult victims of child abuse survive and make meaning of their experience of cultural exclusion and violence committed against them due to superstitious cultural practices, such as witch-hunts and exorcism. Using narrative inquiry, I conducted in-depth interviews of 10 adults who survived childhood abuse. A central theme emerged: maltreatment of children initially occurred due to the loss of one or both parents. The loss of a parent led to the loss of home, security, family, relationships and culture. Once displaced, orphaned children added economic hardship on their surrogate families. Orphaned Congolese children lost status in the eyes of the extended family and community. The families saw children as threats to their survival and an unwanted burden in times when it was a struggle simply to survive. Children were blamed for the unexplainable deaths and misfortunes plaguing their families. Children sought refuse in the streets to avoid abuse, exposing them to more abuse, including violence, insecurity, and injury. War, loss of nuclear family, home, and basic necessities destroyed the structures that in normal times provide the framework for a child’s healthy development. Members of Congolese community should work for children’s healthy development and well-being and ensure the safety of children once a death in the family occurs. Keywords: witch craft, child abuse, Congo, street children of the Congo, child witches. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work would not have been possible without the help and support of the wonderful people that God placed before me, and for that I say thank you. It has been a period of intense learning for me, not only in the scientific arena, but also on a personal level. I would like to reflect on the people who helped me so much throughout this period. I would like to first thank my husband, Tom, for his love and support throughout our journey together, and especially throughout my doctoral experience. I also thank our children Yannick, Gary, Patrick, and Christophe for their love and support. This writing is dedicated to the children in the Democratic Republic of Congo. I feel blessed to have met and known my adviser and chair of the committee, Dr. Noonan. Dr. Noonan, you have provided guidance and taught me a great deal about both scientific research and life in general. Despite the difficulty of writing a dissertation, I was confident I would complete the project because I had you, a loving and dedicated mentor. Finally, I give thanks to my committee members, Drs. Tom Fish and Randy Nelson, for their support, patience and faith in me. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem, Purpose and Significance ..................................................... 6 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 9 Summary and Overview of the Chapters ........................................................................ 9 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................... 13 Changing Definitions of Witchcraft .............................................................................. 14 Beliefs in Witchcraft ..................................................................................................... 15 Cultural and Religious Beliefs ................................................................................... 16 Beliefs Due to Social and Political Upheaval ............................................................ 19 Witchcraft Accusations and Child Abuse ..................................................................... 22 Causes of Children Being Labeled Witches .................................................................. 24 Abuses of Children Accused of Witchcraft................................................................... 27 Summary and Gaps in the Literature............................................................................. 29 Analytical Theory .......................................................................................................... 32 The Ecological-Transactional Theory of Child Maltreatment .................................. 32 Psychology of Abuse ..................................................................................................... 39 Psychology of Hate ....................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 49 Narrative Inquiry ........................................................................................................... 52 Researcher Experience and Bias ................................................................................ 54 Preparation ................................................................................................................. 57 Conducting Research in the Congo: Context and Setting ............................................. 58 Institutional Review Board (IRB) ................................................................................. 59 Recruitment and Selection of Participants .................................................................... 62 Data Collection .............................................................................................................. 65 Interview Procedures ................................................................................................. 67 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 70 v Limitations ................................................................................................................. 73 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER FOUR: LOSS OF THE NUCLEAR FAMILIES .......................................... 75 Death of a Parent(s) ....................................................................................................... 77 Mboya Munane .......................................................................................................... 78 Gracia Leda ................................................................................................................ 80 Falone Bakita ............................................................................................................. 82 Ruth Capena .............................................................................................................. 84 Louisiana Lui ............................................................................................................. 86 Antoinette Petoye ...................................................................................................... 88 Junior Muteba ............................................................................................................ 91 Kabeng Masi .............................................................................................................. 94 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 96 CHAPTER FIVE: LIFE ON THE STREETS OF KINSHASA ....................................... 98 Young Men Living on the Streets ................................................................................