INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL MOBILIZATION: THE CHINESE EDUCATION MOVEMENT IN MALAYSIA ANG MING CHEE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011 i 2011 ANG MING CHEE CHEE ANG MING SOCIAL MOBILIZATION:SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND THE CHINESE EDUCATION CHINESE MOVEMENT INTHE MALAYSIA ii INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL MOBILIZATION: THE CHINESE EDUCATION MOVEMENT IN MALAYSIA ANG MING CHEE (MASTER OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, UPPSALA UNIVERSITET, SWEDEN) (BACHELOR OF COMMUNICATION (HONOURS), UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2011 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My utmost gratitude goes first and foremost to my supervisor, Associate Professor Jamie Seth Davidson, for his enduring support that has helped me overcome many challenges during my candidacy. His critical supervision and brilliant suggestions have helped me to mature in my academic thinking and writing skills. Most importantly, his understanding of my medical condition and readiness to lend a hand warmed my heart beyond words. I also thank my thesis committee members, Associate Professor Hussin Mutalib and Associate Professor Goh Beng Lan for their valuable feedback on my thesis drafts. I would like to thank the National University of Singapore for providing the research scholarship that enabled me to concentrate on my thesis as a full-time doctorate student in the past four years. In particular, I would also like to thank the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences for partially supporting my fieldwork expenses and the Faculty Research Cluster for allocating the precious working space. My appreciation also goes to members of my department, especially the administrative staff, for their patience and attentive assistance in facilitating various secretarial works. This thesis would not have been possible without the support from the following institutions and individuals that facilitated my fieldwork in Malaysia. The hospitable staff at the Dongzong Department of Resource and Information, Dongzong Department of Organization Affairs, Jiaozong Executive Office, members of the Damansara Save Our School movement and all interviewees who willingly participated in this study. My special appreciation goes to the following facilities that allowed me to access their valuable collections: National University of Singapore, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kwangwahyitpoh; Sinchew Daily and Centre for Malaysian Chinese Studies. i My sincere thanks to Cuc, Chuan Yean and Cui Fen for their critical peer review and feedback; Dom, Kim and Serena for their cheerful companionship; Siew Keen for assisting with the technical application, and Pika for scanning the books from the library. Most importantly, I sincerely appreciate the endless efforts by Tey Li Li for proofreading and assisting me to overcome the grammatical challenges of completing this thesis. Special appreciation goes to the following friends and family members: Lay San, Siew Yeong and Gaik Tin for facilitating the interviewees’ contacts; Siew Hong and Seng Chin for enabling me to wheel freely in Malaysia with their car; Sheau Fung for sharing her office as my workspace in Penang; Sharon Koay for providing delicious food supplies; Sara Koay for providing cozy accommodation in Selangor; Ananya for listening to my complaints; Hwee Siang for his cheerful companionship and free rides to the university; and Supawan for her patience and useful advice during my ups and downs. I also would like to thank all the medical personnel who took care of me during my eventful candidacy. For those whom I have not named, please call me up and let me thank you in person. Lastly, I owe my achievements today to my beloved family: my father Ang Cheng Siah, my mother Koay Saw Lye, and my younger brother Ang Ming Chieh. My family has been supportive and understanding during my long absence all these years; their love has been the source of my motivation to continue pursuing my dreams and to be a better person. I hope this doctorate thesis will make them proud. May the force be with you. Ang Ming Chee Singapore, May 2011 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... i Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... iii Summary .................................................................................................................. vi List of Tables.......................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .......................................................................................................... ix List of Maps ............................................................................................................. xi List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................. xii Chapter One Institutions and Social Mobilization 1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.2. The Chinese Education Movement ................................................................. 4 1.3. Research Questions and Propositions ............................................................. 7 1.4. Social Movements, Resources, Opportunities and Identities ......................... 11 1.5. Social Movements in Non-Liberal, Democratic States .................................. 16 1.6. Social Mobilization in Malaysia ................................................................... 30 1.7. Malaysian Social Movements ....................................................................... 33 1.8. Studies on the Chinese Education Movement ............................................... 37 1.9. Research Methodology ................................................................................. 44 1.10. Scopes and Limitations ................................................................................ 47 1.11. Roadmap of the Thesis ................................................................................. 49 Chapter Two Nation Building and Formation of Social Movement 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 53 2.2. Impact of Communist Threats ...................................................................... 54 2.3. Barnes and Fenn-Wu Reports ....................................................................... 59 2.4. The Grand Three Associations of Chinese Education ................................... 64 2.5. The 1955 Malacca Meeting and 1957 Independence..................................... 68 2.6. Razak Report and Citizenship Registration Movement ................................. 72 2.7. Lim Chong Eu and New MCA ..................................................................... 77 2.8. Rahman Talib Report ................................................................................... 79 2.9. Formation of Malaysia ................................................................................. 83 2.10. Dongjiaozong and Merdeka University Campaign ....................................... 86 2.11. Barisan Nasional and MCA Chinese Unity Movement ................................ 90 2.12. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 92 Chapter Three Challenges and Adaptations 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 95 3.2. State Structural Control and Constraints on Chinese Schools........................ 98 3.3. The Turning Point ...................................................................................... 105 3.4. The Taming of the Schoolteachers ............................................................. 111 3.5. Competition with the National Union of the Teaching Profession ............... 114 3.6. School Principals Dominated Chinese Schoolteachers’ Associations .......... 115 3.7. The Trojan Horse ....................................................................................... 117 3.8. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 129 iii Chapter Four Leaders, Alliances and Politics 4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 132 4.2. Political Pressure, Process and Opportunities ............................................. 134 4.3. Merdeka University Lawsuit ...................................................................... 137 4.4. The Alliance of Three ................................................................................ 140 4.5. Alliances with the Chinese Guilds and Associations ................................... 143 4.6. Tianhou Temple Assembly and Operasi Lalang ......................................... 149 4.7. Reform and Reconciliation ......................................................................... 152 4.8. The Dual Coalition System ........................................................................ 154 4.9. From Resistance to Negotiation.................................................................. 156 4.10. Formation of Tanglian and Challenges of Chinese Unity............................ 159 4.11. Resource Mobilization ..............................................................................