Sustained prehistoric exploitation of a Marshall Islands fishery: ichthyoarchaeological approaches, marine resource use, and human- environment interactions on Ebon Atoll Ariana Blaney Joan Lambrides BA (Hons) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2017 School of Social Science Abstract Atolls are often characterised in terms of the environmental constraints and challenges these landscapes impose on sustained habitation, including: nutrient-poor soils and salt laden winds that impede plant growth, lack of perennial surface fresh water, limited terrestrial biodiversity, and vulnerability to extreme weather events and inundation since most atolls are only 2-3 m above sea level. Yet, on Ebon Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands in eastern Micronesia, the oceanside and lagoonside intertidal marine environments are expansive, with the reef area four times larger than the land area, supporting a diverse range of taxa. Given the importance of finfish resources in the Pacific, and specifically Ebon, this provided an ideal context for evaluating methods and methodological approaches for conducting Pacific ichthyoarchaeological analyses, and based on this assessment, implement high resolution and globally recognised approaches to investigate the spatial and temporal variation in the Ebon marine fishery. Variability in landscape use, alterations in the range of taxa captured, archaeological proxies of past climate stability, and the comparability of archaeological and ecological datasets were considered. Utilising a historical ecology approach, this thesis provides an analysis of the exploitation of the Ebon marine fishery from initial settlement to the historic period—two millennia of continuous occupation. The thesis demonstrated the importance of implementing high resolution methods and methodologies when considering long-term human interactions with marine fisheries. Improving methods and data quality of Pacific fishing studies included using vertebral morphometrics for fish size reconstructions and the utilisation of all cranial and postcranial remains for taxonomic identifications. Spatial analysis of habitation sites spread across three islets representing the windward-leeward gradient indicated that marine environments local to each site were not influencing taxonomic composition, but the variability in richness and evenness identified is likely a reflection of fishing technology and site function. There was no indication of significant human impact to the inshore reef taxa, which may be a reflection of the flexible foraging strategies implemented and the resilience and structure of these marine environments. As such, the shifts in the relative abundance of skipjack (K. pelamis) in the archaeological sites were attributed to the potential influence of ENSO variability over the last two millennia. With the implementation of these comprehensive methods and the use of historical ecology as a conceptual framework the range of research questions that could be explored was expanded. Consequently, this thesis was able to address some of these questions, including: the identification of variability in foraging practices across small spatial scales, the usefulness of ichthyoarchaeological data for tracking environmental stability, and distinguishing between changes i in resource availability and signals of human impacts or marine habitat degradation. It is hoped that research efforts in the tropical Pacific Islands will see the continued integration of ecological and archaeological datasets for addressing not only archaeological research questions, but to provide potentially useful contributions to modern biological conservation and restoration efforts. ii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iii Publications during candidature Peer-reviewed papers Lambrides, A. B. J., and Weisler, M. I. (2017). Late Holocene Marshall Islands archaeological tuna records provide proxy evidence for ENSO variability in the western and central Pacific Ocean. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology (accepted March 2017). Giovas, C. M., Lambrides, A. B. J., Fitzpatrick, S., and Kataoka, O. (2017). Reconstructing prehistoric fishing zones in Palau, Micronesia using fish remains: A blind test of interanalyst correspondence. Archaeology in Oceania 52: 45-61. Weisler, M. I., Lambrides, A. B. J., Quintus, S., Clark, J. and Worthy, T. (2016). Colonisation and Late Period Faunal Assemblages from Ofu Island, American Samoa. Journal of Pacific Archaeology 7: 1-19. Harris, M., Lambrides, A. B. J., and Weisler, M. I. (2016). Windward vs. leeward: Inter-site variation in marine resource exploitation on Ebon Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 6: 221-229. Lambrides, A. B. J., and Weisler, M. I. (2016). Pacific Islands ichthyoarchaeology: Implications for the development of prehistoric fishing studies and global sustainability. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 275-324. Lambrides, A. B. J., and Weisler, M. I. (2015). Applications of vertebral morphometrics in Pacific Island archaeological fishing studies. Archaeology in Oceania 50: 53-70. Lambrides, A. B. J., and Weisler, M. I. (2015) Assessing protocols for identifying Pacific Island archaeological fish remains: The contribution of vertebrae. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 25: 838-848. Publications included in this thesis Chapters of this thesis are manuscripts accepted for publication in peer-reviewed journals. I am the lead author of four of these publications. I was responsible for conception and design of the research, analysis and interpretation of data, and the writing, submission and revision of all manuscripts. I was the second author on a fifth manuscript. I worked closely with the lead author on conception and design of the research, analysis and interpretation of data and the writing of the manuscript. iv Chapter 2, “Pacific Islands ichthyoarchaeology: Implications for the development of prehistoric fishing studies and global sustainability” has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Journal of Archaeological Research. Contributor Statement of contribution A.B.J. Lambrides (Candidate) Collation and review of literature (100%) Wrote and edited the paper (70%) M.I. Weisler Wrote and edited the paper (30%) Chapter 3, “Assessing protocols for identifying Pacific Island archaeological fish remains: The contribution of vertebrae” has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. Contributor Statement of contribution A.B.J. Lambrides (Candidate) Research conception and design (50%) Analysis and interpretation of data (100%) Wrote and edited the paper (65%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (50%) Wrote and edited the paper (35%) Chapter 4, “Applications of vertebral morphometrics in Pacific Island archaeological fishing studies” has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Archaeology in Oceania. Contributor Statement of contribution A.B.J. Lambrides (Candidate) Research conception and design (60%) Analysis and interpretation of data (100%) Wrote and edited the paper (80%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (40%) Wrote and edited the paper (20%) Chapter 5, “Windward vs. leeward: Inter-site variation in marine resource exploitation on Ebon Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands” has been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication in Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. v Contributor Statement of contribution A.B.J. Lambrides (Candidate) Research conception and design (40%) Analysis and interpretation of data (50%) Wrote and edited the paper (40%) M. Harris Research conception and design (40%) Analysis and interpretation of data (50%) Wrote and edited the paper (50%) M.I. Weisler Research conception and design (20%) Wrote and edited the paper (10%) Chapter 6, “Late Holocene Marshall Islands archaeological tuna records provide proxy evidence for ENSO variability in the western and central