Cotton, Rice & Water The Transformation of Agrarian Relations, Irrigation Technology and Water Distribution in Khorezm, Uzbekistan Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn vorgelegt von Geert Jan Albert Veldwisch aus Wageningen, Die Niederlande Bonn, 2008 Gedruckt mit Genehmigung der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich- Wilhelms-Universität Bonn 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Solvay Gerke 2. Gutachter: Dr. Max Spoor Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 02.06.2008 Diese Dissertation ist auf dem Hochschulschriftenserver der ULB Bonn http://hss.ulb.uni-bonn.de/diss_online elektronisch publiziert. ii Abstract This study is about the organisation of agricultural production and the distribution of water for agriculture in the post-soviet context of a slowly reforming authoritarian regime. The study is based on 12 months of field research conducted between February 2005 and October 2006 in the irrigation and drainage network of Khorezm province, Uzbekistan. Four WUAs were selected as case studies. The concrete methods deployed for the fieldwork were (1) direct observations of objects, events, procedures, and social interactions; (2) semi- and non-structured interviews with key informants; and (3) a household survey. The studied situation is characterised by reforms that echo the sound of privatisation and neo-liberal reform, while in practice central planning and state control have shown to be persistent, though not unchanging. By moving from collective farming to household-based fermer enterprises, for the individual risks and benefits in agricultural production have increased. The logics of agricultural production are further discussed along the lines of the three forms of production that were distinguished in this study. They are the state-ordered form of production (of cotton and wheat), the commercial form of production (of mainly rice and fodder) and the household form of production (of a variety of food products for home consumption). Each form of production has its specific form of organisation of inputs, labour, state control, distribution of benefits, and marketing. The main question addressed in this study is how the implemented land and water reforms affect the distribution of water. In Khorezm water is relatively abundant available, which eases the task of water distribution. In combination with a historic trajectory of collective agriculture and the continuation of a restrictive political regime this created a situation in which social dynamics between water users are not strongly articulated. The three forms of production each have their own ‘logic’ as regards water management; for state- ordered cotton fermers call on the state organisations, for commercial rice fermers depend on their personal connections, and for household production water uses are small and informal. The household production water users are politically ‘untouchable’ in a way as household production provides for the basic livelihood security of the majority of the rural population. The Uzbek government has top-down established WUAs in place of the former collective farms. Formally they are user-managed organisations, but in practice they are strictly controlled by the state. Among other things the WUAs fulfil important roles in the implementation of (state) control over water distribution and agricultural production. Farmers strategise in different ways to secure their access to water, in which they makes use of their socio-political status and ties and of the spatial and technological situation of the field. The way the irrigation system has been designed and constructed during the period of the USSR expresses the existence of unquestioned centralised managerial control and singularity of purpose, allowing a fully pragmatic and instrumental approach to layout and hydraulic design. The strict state control over cropping patterns and agricultural practices at field level, combined with authoritarian control of society and minimal personal interests in increased water use, and an abundance of water created a situation in which there was no need for irrigation technology that restricted water use. In the context of increased dynamics over water distribution at the WUA level, the role of technology is gaining in importance, not only in the dynamics between farmers, but also in that between the state on the one hand and farmers on the other. iii iv Acknowledgements There is a large group of people without whom this study would not have been possible. In the first place I think of the people of Khorezm that participated in my research; one-time- respondents to my survey, farmers and other key informants, neighbours. Khorezmians are proud people, friendly and incredibly hospitable. Many were helpful yet careful with what they would say, aware that what they would tell me could once be used against them. Some of them were courageous in their openness. Some of them became friends and yet there were things we could not talk about. Sometimes I asked questions that I maybe should not have asked. I have seen a little bit of what it means to live in fear and isolation. I thank them for showing and telling me what they could, despite everything. Khuda hahlasa what they contributed to this study will eventually help to improve Khorezmian agriculture and water management. This study has been conducted as part of the ZEF/BMBF/UNESCO project “Economic and Ecological Restructuring of Land and Water Use in Khorezm”, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Project Number 0339970A). I am thankful for the support that I received in many respects. The dedication of Liliana Sin at the Urgench office should be mentioned by name – she is irreplaceable! Both Christopher Martius and John Lamers are exceptionally dedicated to the project and have invested time and effort beyond measure. The daily interactions with colleagues from other disciplines, both during fieldwork and the weekly project meetings in Bonn, has been challenging and rewarding. I especially want to thank Caleb Wall, Tommaso Trevisani, Ihthiyor Bobojanov, and Margaret Shanafield for their friendship and inspiration in Yangiarik, Urgench and beyond. I thank Rahul Pillai and Arjen Zegwaard for conducting their field research within the frame of my study. First their questions and later their own fieldwork experiences were for me a source of new thoughts and ideas. In Hikmat and Guzal I found two dedicated translators. I am grateful to Guzal for excellent translations, which were especially good due to her intuitive understanding of human interaction. I am very thankful to Artur for driving me – he was always there when I needed him, reliable and trustworthy. His frequent unexpected laughs and simple yet unexplainable humour kept me sane in moments of despair. Far away from home Bimat and his big family offered me a new home, for which I am incredibly thankful. They will always be in my heart. I feel that I have been very privileged with my team of supervisors. Peter Mollinga was dedicated in his ‘daily supervision’ of my research project. He was always quick to read my drafts and gave excellent comments, full of suggestions of how to move forward. During the fieldwork period he visited me more than once and we spent several days together in the field. His ability to combine high (moral and academic) standards with optimism and pragmatism has been (and will continue to be) a source of inspiration. As a co-supervisor Max Spoor has given more than I could have asked. I am pleased to have been able to benefit from his thorough knowledge on transition processes in general and developments in Uzbekistan in particular are exceptional and proved very helpful in v supervision of the work. His effectiveness in work and his strong orientation towards outputs are admirable. I am also grateful for his warm personal support and coaching. Prof. Solvay Gerke has been supportive of my research project whenever needed and in every possible way, from the beginning till the end. The Center for Development Research (ZEF) provided an excellent working environment which I gratefully made use of when in Urgench and Bonn. I am also thankful to the Institute of Social Studies (ISS) in The Hague and its Centre for the Study of Transition and Development (CESTRAD) for providing office space close to my home during the period of writing this thesis. After moving from The Hague to Wageningen I could use office space provided by the Rural Sociology Group at Wageningen University. I thank Dr. Bettina Bock and Prof. dr. Han Wiskerke for this opportunity. Tommaso and Caleb generously shared with me their living space when I was in Bonn. Charlotte van der Schaaf and Bernd Kuzmits were always there. They were the ones who made me familiar with Bonn and ZEF when I first arrived and during the final year of writing frequently welcomed me in their flat as a guest and housemate. Frau Zabel has taken care of numerous bureaucratic arrangements in a way that is admirable. I am indebted to Jenny Pannenbecker for her last minute translation of the German summary. Finally I want to thank family and friends for showing me that there is life outside and life after the PhD. I am thankful that both my parents and parents-in-law came to visit me in Uzbekistan and thus became part of my experiences there. Without the help of my khatonem, Nynke, I would not have been able to keep to my strict schedules. She is a continuous source of inspiration and encouragement. Spending considerable periods of time with me in Uzbekistan she made life more pleasant and helped to integrate two worlds that were sometimes far apart. Katta rahmat! Gert Jan Veldwisch Bonn/Den Haag/Wageningen, December 2007 vi Table of Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements v List of Figures xi List of Tables xii List of Boxes xii Glossary of terms xiii Acronyms xv Chapter 1 – Introduction and Conceptual Framework 17 1.1.