PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University Nijmegen The following full text is a publisher's version. For additional information about this publication click this link. http://hdl.handle.net/2066/150819 Please be advised that this information was generated on 2017-12-05 and may be subject to change. OLIVIER HEKSTER COMMODUS an e m p e r o r a t t h e cro ssr o a T ip r ï v?Tk.7 UI t a UNIVERSITEITSBIBLIOTHEEK NIJMEGEN 230000 1145 3084 COMMODUS. AN EMPEROR AT THE CROSSROADS ' C o m m o d u s An Emperor at the Crossroads Een wetenschappelijke proeve op het gebied van de letteren P roefschrift TER VERKRIJGING VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR a a n d e Ka t h o l ie k e U niversiteit N ijm e g e n , VOLGENS BESLUIT VAN HET COLLEGE VAN DECANEN IN HET OPENBAAR TE VERDEDIGEN OP WOENSDAG 10 APRIL 2002, DES NAMIDDAGS OM 3.30 PRECIES, DOOR O l i v i e r J o r a m H e k s t e r G e b o r e n o p 8 m ei 1974 t e L e id e n \ ü Uitgeverij Gieben L ' v ' A Promotores: Prof. dr L. de Blois Prof. dr Th.E.J. Wiedemann, University of Nottingham! Co-referent: Dr E.M. Moormann, Universiteit van Amsterdam Manuscriptcommissie: Prof. dr F.G.B. Millar, University of Oxford Dr S.T.A.M. Mols Prof. dr PJ.A.N. Rietbergen (voorzitter) EX LIBRiS UNIVERSITATIS NOVIOMAGENSIS V____ ___ ——■ ISBN 90 5063 238 6 the memory of Thomas Wiedemann (1950-2001) P refa ce The mad monarchs of Roman history, with all their peculiarities and the countless anecdotes that surround their lives, form a fascinating topic of research. This book focuses on one of those ‘insane despots’. The emperor Commodus was the first purple-born Roman emperor, and according to our literary sources an evil tyrant - Hollywood style. Dramatic stories about his life are easy to find. This ‘political biography’, however, aims to extend beyond mere trivia, though some spectacular details have been included. Anecdotal evidence, after all, can be fun. But anecdotes only form a small part of our understanding of the Roman world. Epigraphic, numismatic and sculptural sources are easily as relevant. They should be crucial to any analysis of Roman emperors’ lives - or to other aspects of ancient history, for that matter. This study tries to mobilise different types of evidence, to come to a better understanding of the reign of Commodus. Whether I have succeeded in drawing together diverse categories of research, and sketched a convincing picture of Commodus’ reign, is not for me to say. But if I have somehow managed to avoid the pitfalls of interdisciplinary day-tourism, others owe praise for that. First and foremost my gratitude goes to Luuk de Blois, whose enthusiasm, trust and diligence have been a constant motivation for me, from the very first day that I started to get interested in ancient history. Eric Moormann saved me from many factual and methodological errors - and patiently corrected the text again, and again, and again. Two careful supervisors is as much as anyone could hope for. But I have been more fortunate still, with many others who have helped me along the way. Fergus Millar must have repeatedly regretted the day that I became a member of Brasenose College, as it heralded the beginning of endless visits to his room, with questions, or work to read, often unannounced. He never complained or showed annoyance, which I took as encouragement to infringe upon his time even more often. I even usurped his secretary, Priscilla Lange, who, wonderful as she is, agreed to create a bibliography from the chaotic files which I provided her with, possibly without knowing what she was letting herself into. My apologies for that. Similarly, Jas Eisner, Bert Smith and Margareta Steinby were extremely generous with their time, and made me feel more at ease at Oxford than I had thought possible. Their support was topped only by the astounding willingness to help by everyone in the Heberden coin room in the Ashmolean museum. Discussions with Cathy King are always inspirational. Volker Heuchert and Cristopher Howgego surpassed any possible expectation, and gave me, besides good advice, access to the immense database of their forthcoming fourth volume of Roman Provincial Coinage. This book would not have been the same without them. The list goes on. Edwin van Meerkerk, colleague and friend from when we started to study history together, has given continuous moral support, discussed history at length - and made computers do things with my text that I had not thought possible. Ted Kaizer and Pierre Sánchez, both fellow ancient historians, are such good friends that they have been relentless in their criticism (a favour which I have happily returned). In similar friendship, Gerhard Hoogers has taught me all I know about representation. Stephan Mols has advised and corrected me beyond the calls of duty. My father, as always, has spotted errors in the text that everyone else had missed. I had not expected anything less. Other friends and family have kindly pretended to listen when I told them more about Commodus than they can possibly have been interested in - so I will continue to do so, to the everlasting regret of all but my grandmother, who will continue to correct me and deny that she did so. One more person must be explicitly named, before I will succumb to simple listings. Thomas Wiedemann helped to supervise this study until his death on 28 June 2001. His illness and death were a shock. I will never for­ get the many discussions we had, nor the generosity with which he provided me with a seemingly unending number of ideas. More important still, his unqualified kindness. I miss him. The dedication only begins to express this. Many more people, at various institutions, have helped me over the years with ideas and advice. None of them should be held responsible for the contents of this book. Many of them disagree fiercely. It is, thus, more than a commonplace when I say that I am solely responsible for any remaining mistakes. I was probably warned against them. My thanks nonetheless: C. Ando, M. Beard, M. Bergmann, A. Birley, I. Bolognese, C. Bonnet, C. Bruun, L. Emmett, S. Evers, J. Gadeyne, C. Gázdac, H. Geertman, G. de Kleijn, B. Kelly, W. Liebeschuetz, L. Morgan, S. Price, N. Purcell, C. de Raniera, J. Rich, R. Salomons, R. Tion and P. Zanker. Financial support was provided by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), and in addition by the following institutions: The Arts and Humanities Research Board, Brasenose College Oxford, the Classics Department (Nottingham), the Dutch Institute at Rome (a welcome home at visits to Rome), The Faculty of Arts (Nijmegen), the Reiman-de-Bas Fonds, the Sub- Faculty of Ancient History (Oxford), and the VSB Foundation. An earlier version of much of chapter one was published in L. de Blois (ed.), Administration, Prosopography and Appointment Policies in the Roman Empire (Amsterdam 2001). Olivier Hekster C o n te n t s Preface i Abbreviations v Introduction 1 The historiographical tradition: Cassius Dio, Herodian and the Historia Augusta 4 Sending out messages: Visual programmes and ideology 8 Being another? Association, assimilation and identification 11 Hercules, an ambiguous divinity 12 P a r t o n e : R u l in g t h e e m p ir e 1. Adoptive emperors and a purple-born princeps 15 The political ‘system’ of the adoptive emperors 16 Bom to rule 30 Promoting a prince 32 The revolt of Avidius Cassius 34 The aftermath o f the revolt 37 2. Commodus’ sole reign 40 The first few years 40 A province beyond the Danube? 40 Choosing to return 42 The peace settlement 48 Commodus ’ return and the Lucilla conspiracy 50 Change and continuity in government 55 The years of the two great ‘regents’ 60 Perennis 60 The Bellum Desertorum 65 Cleander 61 All the emperor’s men 75 The final years 77 The final conspiracy 80 The provinces 83 Amici, advisors, and the emperor 85 P a r t t w o : R epresenting t h e r u l e 3. Images of divinity 87 Coining an image 87 Princeps Iuventutis 90 Commodus Pius Felix 92 A divine emperor and his gods 99 iv COMMODUS: AN EMPEROR A T THE CROSSROADS Statuary and the message from the coins 112 Commodus, Janus, Jupiter and Sol 115 Commodus-Hercules 117 Herakliskos-Commodus 117 The Capitoline bust 121 The Colossus of Commodus 122 Lysippus’ Hercules 126 The gladiatorial haircut 128 Mercury and Mithras, the invisible identification 129 Representing the emperor 13 5 4. An emperor on display 137 Gladiatorial games: spectacles of power 139 Commodus the gladiator 146 The games and their spectators 154 5. Images and understanding 163 Commodus and the soldiers 164 Provincial attitudes 168 Local coinage and imperial policy 168 Celebrating the emperor: the Kommodeia 174 Opinions of private people 177 Seeing and believing 177 In word and deed: The literary reception 184 Marcus Aurelius Prosenes 186 Succeeding a god 186 Fighting for Hercules 187 Divi Commodi Frater 189 Septimius Severus and Hercules 191 Conclusion: Saevior Domitiano, impurior Nerone? 197 Appendices Commodus’ buildings and statues 203 Ridicule and criticism 207 Bibliography 209 Index 239 List of figures 249 Figures A bbreviations The abbreviations of periodicals adhere to L ’Année Philologique, those of ancient authors and texts to The Oxford Classical Dictionary (19963).