Chapter 29: Latin America: Cuba, Mexico, and Brazil 1900–1939 小组成员： 201405070103 时敏 201405070104 孙丽冉 201405070102 赵洪州 1492年 哥伦布航海发现古巴岛 1510年 西班牙远征军开始征服古巴并进行殖民统治 1902年5月20日 美扶植成立“古巴共和国” 此后，古基本上由独裁政府统治，政局动荡 Until World War I（1914）, the ruling classes（统治阶级）, which controlled their respective nations’ land and resources, preferred to export（出口） raw materials and agricultural produce rather than create industrial economies（经济）. In Brazil, plantation owners exported coffee, which was also central to the economies of Colombia and Central America. In addition, the latter relied heavily on marketing bananas. 中美洲（Central America ） Beef and grains were leading exports in Argentina as was sugar in Cuba, 是指墨西哥以南、哥伦比亚 while tin（锡） mining in Bolivia, copper（铜） mining in Chile, and 以北的美洲大陆中部地区， 东临加勒比海，西濒太平洋， silver（银） mining in Peru enabled those countries to participate 也是连接南美洲和北美洲的 respectively in the international economy. In the late 1920s, the 狭长陆地。包括危地马拉、 discovery of oil deposits in Mexico and Venezuela provided substantial 伯利兹、萨尔瓦多、洪都拉 斯、尼加拉瓜、哥斯达黎加 income from abroad. In all these enterprises, local peasants performed 和巴拿马7个国家 the unskilled hard labor, while skilled workers were brought in from overseas to ll positions that required prior training or education. With in the local Latin American social hierar- （农业） chies（社会等级制度）, entrepreneurs（企业 Despite the emphasis on exporting agricultural 家） were not held in high regard, consequently products and raw materials, industrialization developed immigrants became the leading businessmen. gradually in a few Latin American countries before World War Spaniards, Italians, and Germans were prominent I. The war, which cut off Latin America from its European （供应商） in Argentina, Germans and Italians in Uruguay, suppliers , accelerated the process of import while Portuguese, Italians, and Germans substitution, or replacing imported products with locally constituted the main immigrant populations（移 made goods. By the end of the 1920s, active industrial sectors 民） in Brazil. Local elites encouraged had begun to burgeon in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and immigration to offset the lack of skilled laborers, Uruguay. and immigrants found ample opportunities to establish enterprises that ranged from printing 第一次工业革命：18世纪60年代--19世纪中 plants to the manufacture of durable goods. Unlike Europe or the United States, where the invention of new machines and devices helped to transform small craft workshops into large mechanized factories, industrialization in Latin America happened in a more piecemeal（零碎、逐渐） fashion. Some enterprises such as large breweries（啤酒厂）, flourmills（面粉厂）, and cigarette factories（卷烟工厂） imported advanced machinery, but many products such as foodstuffs, leather （皮革）goods, metalware（金属）, furniture （家具）, and clothing were largely produced in workshops with limited numbers of workers. Frequently these were family businesses. As the economic historian Colin 2015年4月 被选为英国100大会员之一 Lewis points out, the small workshops continued to operate alongside the more advanced factories, thus making it impossible to transform entire industries. Importing machinery was difficult but a number of repair shops that had been established to maintain foreign machines, including railway locomotives（机车）, were able to develop into shops that could build their own machinery, which they then marketed within the country. A further obstacle to the transformation of small labor-intensive enterprises into larger factories was the reluctance of banks to finance their expansion(扩张). These small businesses persisted as well because governments were slow to establish departments or ministries of industry that could develop national policies to support industrial development. One exception to limited local production was the manufacture of weapons, which was carried out in national armories. Weapons production was expanded in Brazil during the Vargas dictatorship in the late 1930s to include the development of Latin America’s only indigenous aircraft industry. The isolation（隔离） of Europe from Latin America because of World War I cleared the way for the United States to develop an aggressive policy of marketing its goods in the southern hemisphere. Conversely, the United States became the largest market for Latin American exports. The aim to increase American trade with Latin America was initiated in 1889 at the First International Conference of American States, held in Washington, DC. At subsequent conferences（后续会议） convened at periodic intervals, this interest was advanced through various inter-American organizations and committees that led to the formation of the Pan American Union, which established its headquarters in Washington. Shortly after Franklin D. Roosevelt became President in 1933, he launched the Good Neighbor Policy through which he sought to develop relations between the 他经常被学者评为美国前三名总统之一 美国迄今为止在任时间最长的总统 United States and the Latin American nations that were based 罗斯福新政 on mutual cooperation and trust. The policy was motivated（动 机） in part to protect and further American economic interests in Latin America, which by this time were extensive. Writing in 1936, business historian Dudley Phelps mentioned（上述） six variants of product manufacturing and marketing （营销）that American companies employed in Latin America. These ranged from complete production in a local plant to designing the packaging for already finished imported goods. In between, Phelps included the local assembly of products based on parts 世界第一部 投入使用的安全电梯 designed to American specifications（规格）. As an example, he cited the Otis elevator whose production in Argentina featured a combination of manufacturing（制造 业） and assembly（部件）, whereby the core apparatus was imported and other parts were made locally. When Ford and General Motors began to sell automobiles in Latin America in the mid-1920s, they established （建立）assembly plants that required few locally manufactured parts. Firms such as National Cash Register（NCR国家收银机）, Singer Sewing Machines（singer缝纫 机）, International Harvester（Navistar国际公司）, and the United Shoe Manufacturing Corporation（BUSM联合制鞋公司） employed large numbers of local people, who were hired primarily for marketing operations, although some assembly was often involved. The preva- lence of these American companies with their widespread distribution and advertising networks and their highly-developed manufacturing methods(制造方法) made it difficult for local enterprises to compete. Consequently there was considerably less local production of durable （耐用） goods than there was in the non-durable sectors that included cosmetics, soap, liquor, tobacco, and foodstuffs. Local enterprises also made clothing and shoes, profiting （获利）from textile（纺织品） manufacturing, which was far more advanced in Latin America than was the production of machines, appliances, or transport vehicles（媒介）. Because so many durable goods came from abroad, even if some were assembled locally, there was little opportunity to develop a profession of industrial design compared to Europe or the United States, where manufacturers with advanced production capabilities relied on designers to create new products for the market. Consequently, product design in Latin America before World War II was practiced primarily as a decorative art （装饰艺术）with a concentration on furniture for one-off and serial production（批量生产）. Also included were other objects for domestic use such as lamps, glassware, ceramics, and ironwork（铁制品）. As a counterpart to the trained decorative artists, some of whom came from abroad and others who were trained in local art schools, craftsmen in small workshops continued to make objects for daily use such as furniture and pots and pans（平底锅）, while some factories produced locally-designed stoves, refrigerators, and even vehicles such as trucks or buses. When the Museum of Modern Art in New York（纽约现代艺术博物馆） held a Latin American industrial design compe-tition in 1940 to coincide with the competition for its exhibition, Organic Design in Home Furnishings, entries were received from 17 countries. Several of the winning designs came from European architects or designers who had emigrated to Latin America: Bernard Rudofsky (1905–1988) in Brazil and two former Bauhaus students in Mexico, Michael van Beuren (1911–2004) and Klaus Grabe (dates unconfirmed). Also from Mexico, the Cuban émigré designer Clara Porset (1932–1981) and her husband Xavier Guerrero (1896–1974) submitted an exemplary prize-winning suite of furniture conceived for rural use featuring cabinets, tables, and a cot and chair that used a traditional webbing material （编制材料）called ixtle. The middle classes（中产阶级） in all Latin American countries Compared to the near absence of industrial grew rapidly between 1900 and 1939, partlydue to immigration（移 designers, commercial artists were active 民） but also to the expansion（扩大） of public and higher throughout Latin America. Producing illustrated education and the growing number of jobs in industry（工业） and advertisements for newspapers and magazines the public sector. One consequence was a rise in literacy（识字率上 was a primary task. Advertising posters were 升） that led to a proliferation of newspapers, journals, books, and displayed less widely than in Europe but were magazines. Publishers（出版商） employed large numbers of nonetheless commissioned（定制） to promote artists, art directors, and caricaturists to illustrate and design their products as well as films in the emerging publications, which formed the basis for public discourse about domestic（国内） and imported film