University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1989 Political literature and public policy in post-Mao China Steve Gideon The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Gideon, Steve, "Political literature and public policy in post-Mao China" (1989). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 3248. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/3248 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. COPYRIGHT ACT OF 1976 THIS IS AN UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT IN WHICH COPYRIGHT SUBSISTS, ANY FURTHER REPRINTING OF ITS CONTENTS MUST BE APPROVED BY THE AUTHOR. MANSFIELD LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF_ MONTANAA DATE : rm POLITICAL LITERATURE AND PUBLIC POLICY IN POST-MAO CHINA By Steve Gideon B.A., University of Montana, 1986 Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts University of Montana 1989 Approved by Chairman, Board of Examiners Jean, Graduate School AJ !5') I j E f Date UMI Number: EP34343 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMT Dissertation Publishing UMI EP34343 Copyright 2012 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Protest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Gideon, Steven A., M. A., May 1989 Political Science Political Literature and Public Policy in Post-Mao China (229 pp.) Director: Louis D. Hayes ^ The relationship in the People's Republic of China between the government and literature has had a long history. Public policy and literature provide a format for dialogue between government and intellectuals. Since the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, the relationship between writers, intellectuals, and the government has begun to shift. Under Mao's rule, literature played a subservient role in the political discussion, and was used mainly as a tool of education. Since the takeover of power by Deng Xiaoping, literature has begun to act as a critical force in attempting to change public policy. The late 1970's and 1980's have witnessed a change in Chinese society which can be studied by examining the arguments of writers and their work. In a one-party state such as the People's Republic of China, literature and the media have the potential to play a larger role than they do in two-party or multi-party states. Actions of the official government and the hierarchy between the central government and the provincial offices are complicated in China by the communist party's relationship with the governmental bureaucracy. The bureaucracy and the party have been accused of corruption and elitism. The public is often excluded from political discussion, and the connections between the party and the bureaucracy have become entangling and self-supporting to the extent that any criticism and call for reform from outside official channels are met with harsh reproval. The role of literature since the death of Mao Zedong has begun to erode the authority of the party and the bureaucracy. Literature and the media in China have the potential to act as a force for reform, and can critique the government from the outside. The strength of literature comes from the support given it by the public. Literature as a tool for public criticism has been developed by the communists since the beginning of the twentieth century. The communist party initially was reliant upon literature for building a basis of support in the intellectual class as well as the peasants and workers. After 1949, the communist party utilized the potential of literature by molding it into a tool for public education. Examination of literature from an historical perspective creates a foundation for the understanding of modern literature. In the recent past, literature was more or less a tool of the government; however, in the modern era it has become a much more potent force. In the absence of an opposition party, the press can and has been developing as a force for criticism as well as at times acting as a loyal opposition. Chinese literature has the potential to emerge as a foundation towards public control over the bureaucracy and the party. The tradition of radical literature in China has encouraged debate and discussion over public policy. In the future it appears that the media will play an even larger role in influencing public policy. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. ANTECEDENTS TO PRC LITERATURE 9 m. LITERATURE AND DISSENT 1949-1976 33 IV. THE CHINESE INTELLECTUAL ENVIRONMENT: IDEOLOGY AND DIRECTION 80 V. CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE: POLICY AND DISSENT 128 VI. LITERATURE CONCERNING POLICY: PRO AND CON 168 VII. CONCLUSION 214 APPENDIX 1 The Evening Talks at Yanshan 227 APPENDIX 2 The Sixteen Point Decision 236 APPENDIX 3 Lu Xun and the Role of Intellectuals in Revolution 239 APPENDIX 4 Liu Binyan and the Role of Literature 241 APPENDIX 5 Letter from BSFU 249 BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 iii 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The relationship in China between the government and literature has had a long history. The development of the modern society is based partly on the dialogue between members of the intellectual community and government officials. Since the death of Mao, the relationship between these two components has begun to shift. Literature has begun to take on a new role in influencing society. From 1949 to 1976, literature on the whole has been a tool of public policy. When intellectuals used literature to show discontent, as in the early 1960's, they were subsequently persecuted and victimized during the Cultural Revolution. In my opinion, the late 1970's and 1980's have begun to witness a change in Chinese society which can be seen by directing attention to literature. Literature reveals the criticisms and arguments of a powerful sector of Chinese society. Furthermore, in a one-party state such as communist China, literature and the media may even play a larger role, acting as a loyal opposition or criticizing the faults of the party and government. In order to understand the modern framework of literary discussion, literature and its content must be studied in context with the Chinese history and government. One goal of this thesis is to analyze contemporary communist literature with respect to its historical origins. To accomplish this goal, one must go back to the first two decades of this century. A second goal is to assess and analyze literature with respect to contemporary 9 political conditions. To do these, the content of literature as well as public policy must be studied. METHODOLOGY AND SUBJECT MATTER This thesis is an interpretive, historical study of the relationship between literature and public policy in China. Previous to 1949, the communist party was not as concerned with controlling all aspects of cultural society and allowed debate within the confines of the party. The leaders of the CCP were concerned with military and political questions. The origins of communist literature begin with the events surrounding the May 4th Movement in 1919. Lu Xun, a writer during this time period, was later claimed as the founder of modern Chinese literature. After the CCP gained power in 1949, it began to solidify its power. Initially intellectuals were sympathetic to and supportive of the communists, and few ideological problems arose. With the Great Leap and its subsequent failure, intellectuals began to assume an adversarial role. Repression and censorship by the government following the 100 Flowers revealed the fragility of literature with respect to political movements. From the late 1950's to the death of Mao in 1976 literature played a subservient role. Public policy concerning literature controlled all aspects of publication and content, forcing writers to produce work approved by political leaders. 3 The moderates allowed much more literary freedom after 1976, partly to consolidate their own power. Public policy in China is at times ambiguous, partly because China is not a legalistic society in the western tradition. Contemporary public policy is a combination of law and the frequent campaigns and movements conducted by the government. These movements depend on the particular concerns of leaders at any one time. Literature may be used to act as a barometer of government policy. More importantly, it can reveal the interests of the public and reveals dissension and criticism within the political system. Research for this paper has thus concentrated on an historical account of the development of communist literature as well as focusing upon some specific works of contemporary authors. The interpretation and analysis in this paper focuses on the following questions: 1) Does the content of dissent reveal changes in public policy? 2) How does public policy react to dissatisfaction in the cultural sphere? 3) Has modern literature played a role in influencing public policy? This thesis is divided into seven chapters to organize the analysis of these themes and questions. Following this introductory chapter, the second chapter reviews Chinese history and literature from 1911 to 1949 and traces the historical development of radical literature.