FALSE ALARM! THE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF POLITICAL CYNICISM AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR POLITICAL PARTICIPATION By SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY School of Politics, Philosophy and Public Affairs AUGUST 2015 © Copyright by SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF, 2015 All Rights Reserved © Copyright by SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF, 2015 All Rights Reserved To the Faculty of Washington State University: The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of SUSANNA AFRA MARIA RIJKHOFF find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted. ______________________________________ Travis N. Ridout, Ph.D., Chair ______________________________________ Martha L. Cottam, Ph.D. ______________________________________ Amy G. Mazur, Ph.D. ______________________________________ Craig D. Parks, Ph.D. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My journey through higher education has always been a lonely one. Finishing, elementary school I was the only one out of thirteen to pursue Gymnasium level in high school. After that, out of my graduation class of approximately ninety students, I was the only one to move to Leiden to study political science. In Leiden, upon completion of my masters in political science, I went on again by myself to receive a second masters in social psychology. Not surprisingly, I moved to the USA by myself to pursue a doctorate in political psychology. However, I did not expect to find out upon arrival, that it was just me starting at Washington State University in a cohort of one. Despite this lonely route, I have never been truly alone throughout all these years and I have received a lot support and encouragement from family, friends and mentors. When I felt defeated and wanted to give up, they told me to go on and push through. For this, I want to express my gratitude and my sincere appreciation. First, I wish to thank my dissertation committee for they have been available for my many questions and they have been dedicated to a successful completion of my degree. Specifically my chair, Dr. Travis Ridout, has been the one I could always count on. Throughout my graduate years at WSU, he came to know me very well and knew how to deal with my uncertainties and hesitations. His trust in me, shown through his advice and guidance not only strengthened my scholarship but also helped me grow personally. Dr. Amy Mazur also contributed in many ways to my graduate career and I thank her for her unbounded enthusiasm and involvement in my many projects. Most of which were not necessarily in line with her research interests but she always provided motivation and support for me. Similarly, I thank Dr. Martha Cottam. Her knowledge of political psychology is something that I greatly admire and I try to carry on this passion by introducing students to the iii field. Last but definitely not least, I thank Dr. Craig Parks. He always managed to lift my spirits and his perspective and input in my research has been invaluable. I am also very appreciative of everybody at the Division of Governmental Studies and Services for all the opportunities they have offered me. I am especially grateful to my dear friends with whom I shared much joy and laughter but also numerous venting sessions usually accompanied by a good glass of wine. Particularly four incredible women have been a great support for me. First my oldest and best friend Annemarie Jong who despite the distance never gave up on us, as our friendship can never be broken. Wherever we are, we can always count on each other. Marcella Oonk, my fellow “Dutchie” in these idiotic United States, she made me hold on to my Orange roots and together we found a way to cope with our everyday struggles with American culture. Then Pip Sherwood and Rose Keller, my dear friends in Pullman, both of them have shown me that we can overcome anything as long as we keep an eye on the goal and have loving friends we can rely on. Lastly, I want to thank my papa and mama, and my sister Sabina. By letting me go, they have given me the most precious gift, my individuality. It is incredibly difficult to be missing them and to be so far away, but I know I can trust in their unconditional support and love for me and each other. They helped me grow to the person I am today and for that I am eternally grateful. Finally, I want to acknowledge my wonderful partner Christopher Campbell. The love that he gives me, the trust that he has in me, and his everlasting optimism helped me through various difficult moments but also made the celebrations of our accomplishments all the more meaningful. I am so grateful that I met Chris, that we share our passion for research and for the beautiful nature we so enjoy. I thank him, purely for being in my life but above all, for being the one who made me feel at home again. iv FALSE ALARM! THE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF POLITICAL CYNICISM AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Abstract by Susanna Afra Maria Rijkhoff, Ph.D. Washington State University August 2015 Chair: Travis N. Ridout The impact of political cynicism on political participation is an ongoing concern of scholars who study political behavior. While political cynicism is often assumed to reduce people’s involvement in politics, others suggest that cynicism may actually increase electoral support for ideologically extreme political parties. I argue that this disagreement is caused by the lack of a proper definition and measurement of political cynicism. This dissertation introduces a new approach to studying the relationship between cynicism and participation, starting with a comprehensive definition, which distinguishes cynicism from other attitudes such as distrust, social or horizontal cynicism and political efficacy. I define political cynicism as an enduring attitude towards politics based on the belief that the political object of cynicism (politicians, political institutions, and the political system as a whole) is untrustworthy, immoral, dishonest, incompetent, self-interested and out of touch with citizens. Additionally, using original data collected through online surveys, I construct a better instrument to identify political cynicism among citizens, focusing on the six dimensions I identified. Structural equation modeling confirms the reliability of the scale and shows that political cynicism is v related to, but distinct from political distrust, political efficacy and social trust. Citizens who are cynical towards politics distinguish between human nature and political nature. Furthermore, I argue that the supposed negative link between cynicism and participation is overstated as I find that the story is much more complicated than it is usually made out to be. Additionally, I find that political cynicism and political distrust have different consequences for political participation. By and large, cynicism and participation are unrelated. When there is a relationship between political cynicism and political participation, it is a positive one. These findings are consistent in several samples and for a variety of types of participation. Consequently, this dissertation shows a citizenry that, although politically cynical to a certain degree, is at the same time not deterred from being politically active. The fretting and hand wringing therefore has to stop. It was false alarm, as political cynicism is not the problem it is made out to be for political participation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... xiii PART ONE - THEORY ................................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 2 CHAPTER TWO: OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................................... 14 POLITICAL CYNICISM ...................................................................................................................... 14 RELATED CONCEPTS....................................................................................................................... 25 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION ......................................................................................................... 29 PART TWO – RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND METHODOLOGY .............................................. 48 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES ...................................... 49 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODS ..................................................................................... 62 PART THREE - RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER FIVE: REDEFINING POLITICAL CYNICISM .......................................................... 73 STUDY ONE: ACADEMIC DEFINITIONS ................................................................................