WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch Exploring digital discourse with Chinese characteristics: contradictions and tensions Na, Y. This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © Miss Yuqi Na, 2020. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. EXPLORING DIGITAL DISCOURSE WITH CHINESE CHARACTERISTICS: CONTRADICTIONS AND TENSIONS Yuqi Na A thesis submitted to the School of Media and Communication of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London, June 2020 Abstract Capitalism in China is under transformations. This research aims to register and interpret China’s discourse on network technologies, reveal the underlying ideologies, and tie this discourse to the transformation of China’s capitalism of which it is a part. Digital discourse, as this thesis defines it, is about the contemporary discourse on network technology under Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics. China’s state-led capitalism has gone through all aspects of changes that are enabled by network technologies, ranging from production, consumption and the market, to the relations between international capital, the State, domestic capital, and individuals are experiencing changes. Along with the economic, political and technological changes are ideological transformations. Digital discourse is part of the social process that is related to other social changes. This thesis will focus on the particular forms of digital discourse as a channel to investigate both social and ideological transformations in China’s digital capitalism. In particular, this thesis looks at the digital discourse from three social and political actors. It analyses discourse from the current central government’s information society policies and President Xi Jinping’s speeches, from CEOs of the dominant Internet companies in China, and from young workers in China’s ‘Silicon Valley’ Shenzhen. Through the lens of ideology, this thesis provides a critique of how digital discourse from different actors legitimate social relations in the current capitalism in China. In particular, at the international level, the government and BAT have appropriated a nationalist discourse to legitimate the global expansion of China’s capital and enterprises. At the domestic level, these actors have produced different types of discourse to legitimate the concentration of the market and the commercialisation of Internet platforms. At the individual level, there is a tendency among all actors to construct a consumer identity to replace a more politically active citizen identity. Through analysing digital discourse from these three actors, this thesis also identifies several features of ideology and the mechanisms of how ideologies work in contemporary capitalism. While the study illustrates the discrepancy of ideological discourse between by the dominant groups and subaltern groups, it also identifies one crucial ideology that legitimates, internalises and naturalises the dominant socio-political arrangements surrounding the commercialised Internet – This is no alternative. This finding suggests a double-layer and multi-dimensional understandings of the ideologies about China’s digital capitalism. 1 Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to express my sincerest thanks to my supervisor, Christian Fuchs, who has always been supporting and encouraging me since the first day of my PhD study. His critical thinking and keen advice have directed my research and added invaluable insights to it. He is such an intelligent and diligent person whose works and personality have inspired and encouraged me a lot during my study. I am also grateful to my second supervisor, Xin Xin, for her valuable advice on structures, and topics of the dissertation. Her great PhD thesis furthermore sheds light on my writings. Special thanks should also go to Anthony McNicholas, whose support, patience and encouragements are vital for my precious time at CAMRI and MAD. I would also like to thank my colleagues at the University of Westminster. I had a lot of inspiring discussions here. I have been fortunate to be supported by great groups of friends and colleagues. I was lucky to have Duygu Karatas’ support for my difficult time. Great thanks to other PhD friends: Tiankai Tang, Xiang Fan, Yang Zhou: the sharing, connection, laughing in our little ‘gang’ have given me so much happiness and courage. They make my PhD journey less lonely. My special thanks to Aliaksandr Herasimenka, whose enthusiasm about work, research and life, whose intelligence and positive attitudes have encouraged me a lot during my most depressed and challenging time. Without my interviewees and friends, it would be impossible to finish this thesis. I would like to show my deepest thanks to their generous help for making it happen, special thanks to Wu Lunjing, Qinghu Xuetang, Jimmy, Wu Yipeng, Zhang Weixin and everyone who has shown their interests and supported to my research. I want to dedicate this thesis to my parents, I feel so lucky to have their unconditional love, support, respect and encouragement. Their attitudes toward life and work have given me great courage. “Whatever causes night in our souls may leave stars.” – Victor Hugo 2 Table of Contents EXPLORING DIGITAL DISCOURSE WITH CHINESE CHARACTERISTICS: CONTRADICTIONS AND TENSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 0 Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 3 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 8 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 11 1.1. Key Concepts ............................................................................................................... 12 1.2. Ideology Critique in Media and Technology Studies .................................................. 14 1.3. Research Questions and the Overall Structure of this Thesis ...................................... 16 CHAPTER 2. DEFINING IDEOLOGY IN THIS THESIS .................................................... 21 2.1. Defining Ideology ........................................................................................................ 21 2.1.1. Ideology which emerges from economic contradictions ..................................... 22 2.1.2. Ideologies embedded in political conflicts .......................................................... 27 2.1.3. Tensions and Reconciliation: a summary ............................................................ 30 2.2. The Functions of Ideology ........................................................................................... 31 2.2.1. Ideology as distorted solutions and limiting revolutionary thoughts ................... 32 2.2.2. Ideology as a partial understanding of reality ...................................................... 34 2.2.3. Hegemony used to gain consent for the dominant power .................................... 36 2.2.4. Ideology used to reproduce the current system.................................................... 38 2.3. A Model of Ideology .................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER 3. CAPITALISM WITH CHINESE CHARACTERISTICS................................ 44 3.1. The Capitalist Economy and Chinese model ............................................................... 44 3.2. The Land Issue ............................................................................................................. 50 3.3. Domestic Enterprise Ownership .................................................................................. 55 3.4. Foreign Relationships .................................................................................................. 58 3.5. Political Reforms and the Party-State .......................................................................... 63 3.6. Contradictions in Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics and the Decline of Socialist Welfare ..................................................................................................................................... 67 CHAPTER 4. DIGITAL DISCOURSE IN ADVANCED CAPITALIST SOCIETIES ......... 73 4.1. Technological Determinism ......................................................................................... 73 4.2. Digital Discourse and Capitalist Economy .................................................................. 76 4.2.1. Decentralised and de-hierarchised market ........................................................... 77 4.2.2. The Flexible production process and working process ........................................ 79 3 4.2.3. Consumerism,