Review of History and Political Science June 2015, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 25-32 ISSN: 2333-5718 (Print), 2333-5726 (Online) Copyright © The Author(s). 2015. All Rights Reserved. Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development DOI: 10.15640/rhps.v3n1a3 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/rhps.v3n1a3 Tao Xingzhi’s Non-Communist Mass Education Movements in 1930s China Qian Zhu1 Abstract This paper attempts to reveal both the historical and the historiographical significances of a non-Communist mass education movement by challenging the existent scholarships in studying Tao Xingzhi’s educational theory and practices in 1930s China. My research indicates that the emergence and the development of Tao’s “Life Education” theory was the immediate response to the interwar history as it was shown in everyday life that had been changed under global capitalism, imperialism, and war. As it was closely engaged with the issues of inequality, exploitation, and human emancipation, Tao’s theory founded upon searching for solutions to the current structural crises in Chinese society and the world. Specifically, it dealt with how to transform the social hierarchy that had been reflected in the existent educational system. Therefore, Tao’s educational theory should be seen as one of the various political efforts during the interwar period that simultaneously perceived education as the effective means to transform society anew, which corresponded to the ongoing socio-political changes in the interwar period. To synchronize Tao’s educational theory with other educational ideas, I aim to challenge the arbitrary relationship between the West teaching and the East learning and the state/the powerful vs. the society/the powerless relationship that was presumed by the aforementioned approach. Indeed, Tao’s contribution to China’s educational modernization could not be seen as a failed resistance to state-institutional politics, rather it must be examined historically as a leftwing intellectual consideration of the present and longing for a future of social equality, which contrasts with the Chinese Communist Party’s mass education movement oriented by the Marxist class categories and class struggle. Keywords: mass education; everyday life; Tao Xingzhi; non-Communist leftism; the 1930s China 1. Introduction This paper attempts to reveal both the historical and the historiographical significances of a non-Communist mass education movement by challenging the existent scholarships in studying Tao Xingzhi’s educational theory and practices in 1930s China. I argue that Tao’s “Life Education” theory should be considered synchronic, equally significant, and mutually overlapping with the concurrent principles and ideas on mass education in interwar China. Literatures on Tao’s educational theory have stressed that he adopted and modified his advisor in Columbia University, John Dewey’s pragmatic educational theory—an American liberal-democratic model from the bottom up in order to resist against the more institutionalized models from the top down embraced by CaiYuanpei’s French University-Colloquium model, Tang Hualong’s Japanese military education model and Fan Yuanlian’s Confucian- Classic model. Tao’s resistance to institutional education has been understood as a failed but respectable elite class struggle against state politics for public voices since the elimination of the Civil Examination in 1905.2 1 Assistant Professor, History and Modern Languages, Wabash College, 301 W Wabash Ave., Crawfordsville, IN47933, U.S.A. Email: [email protected], Tel: 765-361-6280, Fax:765-361-6470 2Pui-wan Cheng, Tao Xingzhi: His Education Theory and Practice, Department of Religion and Philosophy, Master Thesis, McGill University, 1982, pp.76-80. Tai Chen Hwa, A Critical Study of the Resolutions of the Chinese Federation of Educational Association, 1915- 26 Review of History and Political Science, Vol. 3(1), June 2015 This approach perceives Tao Xingzhi and his educational theory as secondary to either the Western influence or state politics, separates it from the economic, social and political context of the interwar period. Instead, my research indicates that the emergence and the development of Tao’s “Life Education” theory was the immediate response to the interwar history as it was shown in everyday life that had been changed under global capitalism, imperialism, and war. As it was closely engaged with the issues of inequality, exploitation, and human emancipation, Tao’s theory founded upon searching for solutions to the current structural crises in Chinese society and the world. Specifically, it dealt with how to transform the social hierarchy that had been reflected in the existent educational system. Therefore, Tao’s educational theory should be seen as one of the various political efforts during the interwar period that simultaneously perceived education as the effective means to transform society anew, which corresponded to the ongoing socio-political changes in the interwar period. To synchronize Tao’s educational theory with other educational ideas, I aim to challenge the arbitrary relationship between the West teaching and the East learning and the state/the powerful vs. the society/the powerless relationship that was presumed by the aforementioned approach. Indeed, Tao’s contribution to China’s educational modernization could not be seen as a failed resistance to state- institutional politics, rather it must be examined historically as a leftwing intellectual consideration of the present and longing for a future of social equality. 2. Human Emancipation in Everyday Life: Life Education Campaign (Shenghuo Jiaoyu Yundong), 1931- 1936 From 1927 to 1930, the CCP led by Mao Zedong and Zhu De developed into an economically self-sufficient military power in the Chinese Communist Jianggang Mountain Revolutionary Base, a rural area in Jiangxi province. At the same time, in 1928 in northern China, the warlords Yan Xishan in Shanxi and Feng Yuxiang in Beijing started an “anti-Jiang” war against the Nationalist Nanjing government. Meanwhile, a group of Nationalist party members and followers of Sun Yat-sen, such as Shen Junru, Hu Hanmin, and Li Renchao, criticized Jiang Jieshi’s “Party-Nation” politics and called for the end of pedagogical politics. Meanwhile, China’s northeastern borderlands were threatened by both Russian and Japanese troops. In 1931, the Japanese troops invaded Manchuria and the Man Zhou Guo was established. Most importantly, from 1925 to 1929, the anti-imperialist mass movements flared up in the coastal cities. After the Hong Kong and Canton Great Strike against imperialism and exploitation in 1925, the Chinese workers of Nanjing’s foreign trade companies in 1929 in collaboration with students took to the street against imperialism in China and urged the Nanjing government to “end the party-nation politics and return politics to people”. Among these oppositional politics and movements, the revival of communism and the establishment of the Red Army were considered as an imminent threat to the Nationalist Nanjing regime. Jiang Jieshi issued the anti-communist policy in 1930 as the primary task for the Nationalist government. At the same time when the Nationalist regime launched military campaigns to eliminate “the communist bandits” (jiaofei), it also carried out the so-called “white terror” to purge the opposition within the Party and arrest the non-partisan left-wing activists by labeling them as “becoming-red elements” (chihuafenzi) or “reactionists” (fandongpai).3 In May, 1930, the Xiaozhuang Normal School was labeled as a “communist school” threatening the security of the Capital Nanjing and was banned by the Nanjing government. Tao Xingzhi fled to Shanghai and hid himself in the French concession where he was exempt from punishment. The national crisis and state censorship urged Tao Xingzhi to rethink of the meanings and the relationship of everyday life and mass education, both philosophically and politically, in the light of democracy and human emancipation based upon the experiences in the Xiaozhuang School. Upon the closure of the Xiaozhuang School, Tao proposed his widely known “life education” theory (shenghuojiaoyulilun) or Tao Xingzhi-ism (Tao Xingzhizhuyi).4 For Tao, everyday life and education must be united, a prerequisite condition for the proliferation of democracy and human emancipation. Nevertheless, this condition demanded the redefinition of society and the relocation of education into social life, which posed a challenge to the existent educational system. Tao wrote, Society, as the totality of diverse lives, is school. In this regard, we admit that one’s education depends upon what kind of life one is living. Life education comes when we are born and goes when we are dead. 1926, (unpublished Ed. D. Dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1954), passim. Barry Keenan, John Dewy in China: His Visit and the Reception of His Ideas, (unpublished Ph.D dissertation, Claremont Graduate School and University Center, 1969), pp.48-50 ff. Also See, Su, Zhixin, Teaching, learning, and reflective acting: a Dewey experiment in Chinese teacher education, Teachers College Record v. 98 (Fall 1996) p. 126-52. 3Historical Archives of the Party (Dangshi ziliao), Historical Archives of the Party Research Institute, 1955, pp.137-157. 4According to Deng Chunmin, one of Tao’s followers, Tao’s educational theory was widely accepted and practiced as an ism. Deng Chumin, On Tao Xingzhi-ism, Minguo congshu, Bai Tao ed., Shanghai Bookstore,