LOCAL GOVERNANCE: ASSESSMENT OF THE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF TUMBLER RIDGE, BRITISH COLUMBIA By SUSAN McGRATH B.A.(Hons), The University of Western Australia, 1979 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES School of Community and Regional Planning We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October 1985 © Susan McGrath, 1985 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of CoMwu imUj OUAJ KQ^IQIOJ MCUM^1 The University of British Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date QtLLu lAlrf... lUb' JE-6 C3/81) i ABSTRACT Tumbler Ridge, a resource town situated in northeastern British Columbia, is the first new community developed using the "local govern• ment" model. The context for the case study is provided by an examination of resource community development in British Columbia and Western Australia during the post-war period. In both jurisdictions a transition in resource community development methods is evident. The main stimulus for these changes has been the recognition of a variety of endogenous and exogenous problems associated with earlier methods of development. There has been a change away from the paternalistic company town with its out• dated mode of private governance to more "open" methods of development which enable a greater degree of self-governance. The Tumbler Ridge project is assessed in some detail in order to Identify its main attributes and drawbacks. Where circumstances such as workforce size, location and anticipated longevity of mining activity favour the establishment of a new town, the Tumbler Ridge case study shows that the "local government" method of development should be preferred over alternative methods of developing new resource communities. The "local government" model has a number of distinct benefits including: financial mechanisms that enable early provision of a high standard of facilities and services, commercial sector brokerage, proactive community develop• ment, participatory local government and a reduction in corporate influence. These have resulted in the diminution of social ailments and more rapid progress towards stability and maturity than in resource towns established by alternative methods. The most significant remaining ii problem is the provision of service sector housing and the attainment of a sufficiently integrated housing market. Changes in the approach to resource community development are primarily the outcome of changes in provincial policy. Whereas in the pre-war and early post-war period, economic development was the overriding factor, in recent decades, settlement policy, which is essentially concerned with social and livability aspects of development, and environ• mental policy, have introduced a range of other considerations and contri• buted to present trends in resource community development. The form that future resource community development takes will depend primarily on the disposition of the prevailing political party. To the extent that provin• cial settlement policy is influenced by the outcome of previous initia• tives, Tumbler Ridge is likely to reinforce existing tendencies towards municipally-lead development. One of the most important contributions of the Tumbler Ridge project is that it has enabled the articulation of a set of theoretical relationships that exists between governance institutions, the tools and skills required to operationalize these. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2: RESOURCE COMMUNITIES - THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES, HISTORICAL CONTEXT, CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Theoretical Perspectives 16 2.2.1 The "Internal" Perspective - Social and Psychological Characteristics of Resource Communities 16 2.2.2 The "External" Perspective - Critical Literature of the Political Economists 23 2.2.3 The "Internal" and "External" Perspectives - A Synthesis 27 2.3 British Columbia Resource Community Development: A Conceptual Framework and Historical Perspective .... 28 2.3.1 Conceptual Framework: Resource Town Develop• ment Models 28 2.3.2 The Historical Evolution of Resource Towns in British Columbia 32 2.3.2.1 "Company" Towns 32 2.3.2.2 "Instant" Towns 36 2.3.2.3 "Local Government" Towns 38 2.3.3 An International Comparison - The Pilbara Region, Western Australia 40 2.4 Community Governance and Resource Town Development . 46 iv Page 2.4.1 Concept and Purpose of Governance .46 2.4.2 Democracy and Participation 48 2.4.3 Economic Efficiency 57 2.5 Summary 58 CHAPTER 3: PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF TUMBLER RIDGE 61 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 The Context - Northeast Coal Development 61 3.3 The Planning Process - A Conceptual Framework 64 3.4 Components of the Tumbler Ridge Planning Process ... 64 3.4.1 Goals and Objectives 68 3.4.2 Implementation Tools 69 3.4.2.1 Legislation. The Municipal Act .... 70 3.4.2.2 Letters Patent 71 3.4.2.3 The Commissioner 72 3.4.2.4 Development Agreement 73 3.5 Institutional Arrangements 77 3.6 Nature and Principles of Planning in Tumbler Ridge • 78 3.7 Summary 81 CHAPTER 4: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE TUMBLER RIDGE PROJECT 84 4.1 Introduction 84 4.2 The Nature and Purpose of Implementation Assessment 84 4.2.1 Definition 84 4.2.2 Purpose and Nature 89 4.2.3 Level of Resolution 92 4.2.4 Approaches in Implementation Analysis 93 4.3 The Tumbler Ridge Project 94 Page 4.3.1 Areas for Assessment 94 4.3.2 Tumbler Ridge Assessment 97 4.3.2.1 Land Allocation and Development 97 4.3.2.2 Organizational Structure and Implementa• tion Process 99 4.3.2.3 Local Self-Government 110 4.3.2.4 Integrated Housing Market and Service Sector Housing 120 4.3.2.5 Commercial Services and Town Centre 135 4.3.2.6 Environment 145 4.3.2.7 Financial Responsibility and Viability .. 147 4.3.2.8 Risk Protection 151 4.3.2.9 Equity Between Resource Companies 158 4.3.2.10 Equity Between Communities 160 4.3.2.11 Community Maturity/Stability 165 4.4 Assessment Summary 173 CHAPTER 5. RESOURCE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: IMPLICATIONS AND TRANSFERABILITY 178 5.1 Introduction 178 5.2 Future Resource Community Development in British Columbia 178 5.2.1 Policy Context 180 5.2.2 Provincial Policy and Involvement in Resource Town Development 181 5.2.3 Relationship of Settlement Policy and Economic Development Policy 186 5.3 Development, Governance and Transferability 187 5.4 Summary and Conclusions 196 BIBLIOGRAPHY * 200 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.1 Definition of Three Methods of Development 31 2.2 Post-War Resource Towns - Development Responsibilities .. 34 2.3 Pilbara region Resource Towns - Development Responsibilities 42 4.1 Dimensions of the Local Government Model Posed for Assessment 96 4.2 Tumbler Ridge Project: Involvement and Role of Governmental Agencies 101 4.3 Tumbler Ridge: Summary of Apartment Rentals, Housing and Lot Prices 123 4.4 Coal Companies: Housing Packages 124 4.5 Housing Inventory 125 4.6 Tumbler Ridge: Inventory of Facilities and Services .... 142 4.7 Estimated Development Costs 150 4.8 Tumbler Ridge and Selected Resource Communities 152 4.9 Tumbler Ridge: Enhanced Facilities and Services 162 4.10 B.C. Resource Towns: Property Charges per Average House 164 5.1 Comparison of Mechanisms Used to Establish Tumbler Ridge and Resource Towns in the Pilbara Regions, Western Australia 190 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Western Australia: Pilbara Iron Ore Towns and Major Road Links 26 2.2 Ladder of Citizen Participation 55 3.1 Location of the Northeast Coal Region 62 3.2 Inter-Relationships Between Three Models of Planning ... 65 3.3 Tumbler Ridge Project: Contractual Commitments 74 4.1 Conceptual Organizational Structure: Conceptual Plan Early 1981 103 4.2 Organizational Structure: Late 1981-1982 104 4.3 Organizational Structure: 1982-1983 105 4.4 Organizational Structure: Fall 1983 Onwards 106 4.5 Response of the Local Government Model to Phases in Development of a Resource Community 112 4.6 Tumbler Ridge Townsite 126 4.7 Town Centre Master Plan 144 5.1 Policy Ideal 180 5.2 Resource Town Policy: Context and Related Policy Areas . 182 5.3 Policy in the Pre-World War II and Early Post-War Period 183 5.4 Policy in the 1960's and 1970's 183 5.5 Policy in the 1980's 185 5.6 Governance: Three Key Elements 194 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank, my faculty supervisor, Professor Brahm Wiesman. Thanks are also due to Gary Paget, my external adviser, for his guidance and willingness to share his extensive experience in resource community planning. Richard Rabnett was also a source of enlightenment regarding the Tumbler Ridge project and made helpful comments on an early draft of the thesis. I also wish to express my appreciation to Pat Walsh, Commissioner and Mayor of Tumbler Ridge, and others involved in the planning and implementation of the project. The differing perspectives of the various participants provided many rich and interesting insights into a complex and innovative project. Finally, I would like to thank the Aldermen and other citizens of Tumbler Ridge who contributed by discussing their experiences of the first few years of residence in the town.