Japan’s Foreign Policy, 1945–2009 JAPAN’S FOREIGN POLICY, 1945–2009 The Quest for a Proactive Policy BY KAZUHIKO TOGO THIRD EXTENDED EDITION LEIDEN • BOSTON 2010 This book was published with fi nancial support from the International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS), Leiden, the Netherlands. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Togo, Kazuhiko, 1945– Japan’s foreign policy, 1945–2009 : the quest for a proactive policy / by Kazuhiko Togo. — 3rd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-18501-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Japan—Foreign relations— 1945–1989. 2. Japan—Foreign relations—1989– 3. Japan—Foreign relations— 21st century. 4. Japan—Politics and government—21st century. I. Title. DS889.5.T638 2010 327.52—dc22 2010015914 ISBN 978 90 04 18501 2 Copyright 2010 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. 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CONTENTS Glossary ...................................................................................... xi Acknowledgments ...................................................................... xv Introduction ................................................................................ xvii Maps .......................................................................................... xxii Prologue: From the Meiji Restoration to the Pacific War 1. From the Meiji Restoration to the Japan-Russia War .............................................................. 1 2. WW I and the Washington Conference ........................ 9 3. From the Manchurian Incident to the War in the Pacific ................................................................................ 20 Chapter One. After the War: New Values and the Peace Treaty 1. The defeat and new values .............................................. 31 2. The American occupation ................................................ 35 3. The new constitution ........................................................ 38 4. Political reforms and economic recovery ........................ 43 5. The 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty .......................... 46 6. Japanese security policy and the Japan-US Security Treaty ................................................................................ 52 Chapter Two. The United States: Political and Security Relations 1. The revision of the Security Treaty ................................ 55 2. The reversion of Okinawa .............................................. 64 3. Host Nations Support and Guidelines for Defence Cooperation of 1978 ........................................................ 70 4. The Western Alliance under Nakasone and Reagan .... 74 5. The end of the Cold War and ‘Japan’s Defeat’ in the 1991 Gulf War .......................................................... 77 6. September Eleven and thereafter .................................... 85 7. The revision of the constitution ...................................... 86 vi contents Chapter Three. The United States: Economic Relations 1. The situation until the end of the 1960’s ...................... 87 2. Japan-US economic relations in the 1970’s .................... 89 3. Japan-US economic relations in the 1980’s .................... 95 4. Trade conflicts from the end of the 1980’s to the beginning of the 1990’s .................................................... 103 5. Japan-US economic relations in the first half of the 1990’s .................................................................................. 108 6. Japan’s economic situation at the turn of the century ........ 114 Chapter Four. China: Economic Development and Wounded Feelings 1. Diplomatic relations with Taiwan and economic relations with mainland China ........................................ 119 2. Establishment of diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China ............................................................ 124 3. The conclusion of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship .......................................................................... 131 4. Relationships over the 1980’s .......................................... 137 5. Relationships from the 1990’s onwards .......................... 146 6. Ways ahead ...................................................................... 155 Chapter Five. Korea: South Korean Relations Develop with Complexity, Will North Korean Relations Start? 1. Establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea .................................................................................. 157 2. The first 30 years: economic relations developed but political relations were troubled ................................ 163 3. The turn of the century: from the Murayama Statement to Prime Minister Koizumi ............................ 169 4. The North Korean situation (until 2001) ...................... 177 5. Japan-North Korea relations (until 2001) ...................... 184 6. Prime Minister Koizumi’s visit to North Korea and rising tension ...................................................................... 189 contents vii Chapter Six. Asia and the Pacific: Expanding Relations from Bilateral to Multilateral 1. Beginning of relations: war reparations and early policy initiatives ................................................................ 195 2. Strengthening the relationship: the Fukuda Doctrine and the establishment of PECC ...................................... 199 3. Development of the Asian economies and the creation of APEC ............................................................................ 205 4. Security cooperation after the Cold War: ARF and NEACD .............................................................................. 210 5. In search of new cooperation: ASEAN plus Three and FTA ............................................................................ 214 6. In the Eurasian continent: India and Silk Road countries ............................................................................ 219 7. To the Pacific: Australia and the Pacific Island countries ............................................................................ 223 Chapter Seven. Russia: Territorial Disputes and Strengthening the Relationship 1. The end of the Pacific War: beginning of the disconnection ...................................................................... 228 2. The San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951 ...................... 231 3. The Khrushchev period: the Joint Declaration of 1956 and the Memorandum of 1960 ...................................... 233 4. The Brezhnev period: Detente and thereafter .............. 238 5. Gorbachev’s Perestroika: a new overture ........................ 243 6. Yeltsin’s Russia: emergence of a new world .................. 248 7. President Putin and future perspectives .......................... 256 Chapter Eight. Europe: Struggle for Relevance 1. A prolonged postwar period (1945–1969) ...................... 261 2. Trade conflicts with Europe (1969–1991) ...................... 264 3. A wide range of cooperation between Japan and Europe during the 1990’s ................................................ 268 4. Asia-Europe cooperation .................................................. 274 5. Wounded feelings from the Pacific War: Great Britain and the Netherlands .......................................................... 279 6. An action plan for EU-Japan cooperation .................... 285 viii contents Chapter Nine. the Middle East: Oil Diplomacy and Issues of War and Peace 1. Energy and oil diplomacy in Japan ................................ 289 2. Relations with the Gulf countries and wars in the Persian Gulf ...................................................................... 300 3. Relations with the countries involved in the Middle Eastern peace process ...................................................... 311 4. New endeavours to enlarge the scope of foreign policy .................................................................................. 313 Chapter Ten. Official Development Assistance: From Recipient to Donor Number One 1. Japan’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) in perspective .......................................................................... 316 2. Postwar reconstruction and reparations .......................... 318 3. Development in volume .................................................... 321 4. Qualitative improvement of yen loans ............................ 324 5. Regional diversification .................................................... 325 6. Forms of ODA and international polemics .................... 328 7. Conceptualization efforts of ODA .................................. 332 8. Current problems and future perspectives ...................... 341 Chapter Eleven. Multilateral Economic Diplomacy: From Participant to Positive Contributor 1. Postwar international economic organizations and Japan’s accession ...............................................................