University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository University of Calgary Press University of Calgary Press Open Access Books 2014 A historical and legal study of sovereignty in the Canadian north : terrestrial sovereignty, 1870–1939 Smith, Gordon W. University of Calgary Press "A historical and legal study of sovereignty in the Canadian north : terrestrial sovereignty, 1870–1939", Gordon W. Smith; edited by P. Whitney Lackenbauer. University of Calgary Press, Calgary, Alberta, 2014 http://hdl.handle.net/1880/50251 book http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 4.0 International Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca A HISTORICAL AND LEGAL STUDY OF SOVEREIGNTY IN THE CANADIAN NORTH: TERRESTRIAL SOVEREIGNTY, 1870–1939 By Gordon W. Smith, Edited by P. Whitney Lackenbauer ISBN 978-1-55238-774-0 THIS BOOK IS AN OPEN ACCESS E-BOOK. 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Acknowledgement: We acknowledge the wording around open access used by Australian publisher, re.press, and thank them for giving us permission to adapt their wording to our policy http://www.re-press.org 5 71 The Alaska Boundary Disput e The Alaska boundary controversy had its origins in complications associated with the period of Russian dominion in Alaska. While explorers from western Europe were moving across the vast expanses of North America and up its Pacific coast towards the northwestern extremity of the continent, Russian adventurers were approaching the same region from the opposite direction, and they got there well in advance of their rivals. In 1639, only about sixty years after the Stroganovs and Yermak the Cossack started the great march from Muscovy eastward across Siberia, a small party under Andrei Kopilov is said to have reached the waters of the Pacific and founded the post of Okhotsk.1 The Cossack Simeon Dezhnev in 1648 sailed a vessel around the northeastern extremity of Siberia from the Kolyma River to south of the Anadyr, according to records discovered nearly one hundred years after the event is supposed to have taken place. He thus proved that Asia did not join North America in that region.2 There was desultory Russian activity around the Sea of Okhotsk and in Kamchatka Peninsula during the following years, but the next major advance came with the two great voyages of Vitus Bering. Acting on instructions given by Peter the Great just before his death in 1725, this Danish captain, with his lieutenant Alexei Chirkov, sailed from Kamchatka in 1728 and followed the Siberian coast through Bering Strait, reaching 67° 18' N latitude before turning back. In 1741, after years of delay, they set out from Kamchatka again. Although their two ships became separated, they both succeeded in reaching and cruising along the southern coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, thus accomplishing the modern discovery of North America from the Asiatic side.3 After Bering’s second voyage, Russian explorers and traders sailed from Okhotsk and Kam- chatka to Alaskan waters in increasing numbers, and they gradually extended their activities along the Aleutian chain and to the mainland.4 Among the key events were the establishment of the first permanent Russian post at Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island by Gregory Shelikhov in 1784, Gerassim Pribilov’s discovery of the Pribilov Islands in 1786, and Alexander Baranov’s establish- ment of a new headquarters, Mikhailovsk (later Novo Archangelsk), on the island of Sitka in 1799. The Russians were primarily interested in furs, especially those of the sea otter; in pursuit of this trade, they not only subdued the indigenous residents with much brutality but also fell into serious quarrels among themselves. They had also to withstand an increasing challenge from foreign rivals, notably British, Spanish, French, and American. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, Cook, Clarke, Portlock and Dixon, Meares, Vancouver, Pérez, Heceta, Quadra, Martinez, Haro, Fidal- go, Malaspina, Caamaño, La Pérouse, Marchand, and others were active in Alaskan waters and interested in the region.5 To eliminate inter- Fort Ross at Bodega Bay on the California necine strife among themselves, to combat the coast, this marking approximately the south- intrusions of foreign interlopers, and to main- ern limit of Russian enterprise in the region. tain better control and management of the Primarily to check the “secret and illicit traffic” fur trade, several leading Russian companies of foreigners, Emperor Alexander I issued a took the initiative and in 1798 consolidated sweeping ukase on 16 September 1821, which 72 into a single organization. On 8 July 1799, an purported to grant Russian subjects the exclu- imperial ukase issued by Emperor Paul I con- sive right to the “pursuits of commerce, whal- firmed the consolidation and granted the new ing, and fishery, and of all other industry on all organization the title “The Russian American islands, ports, and gulfs including the whole Company.” of the northwest coast of America, beginning The ukase bestowed upon the Russian from Behring’s Strait to the 51° of northern American Company a monopoly charter for latitude,” and also the Aleutian Islands and a period of twenty years over all enterprises, Kurile and other islands off the Siberian coast, including hunting, trading, settlement, and in- from Bering Strait to Urup Island in the Ku- dustry, on the coast of America north of 55° N riles at 45° 50'. The ukase also prohibited all latitude and the chain of islands extending foreign vessels from landing on all these coasts across the northern Pacific and southwards to and islands, and also from approaching them Japan. The company could make new discov- within one hundred “Italian miles,” on pain of eries not only north of 55° but south as well, confiscation.9 Nine days afterwards, the Tsar and it could claim and occupy the lands discov- issued a second charter to the Russian Amer- ered as Russian possessions if they were not al- ican Company, renewing the monopoly privil- ready the property of some other nation. It also eges it had been granted in 1799 for a further had judicial, military, and administrative au- period of twenty years. The area subject to the thority in these regions.6 As the British pointed monopoly would be governed by the ukase of out in the Fur Seals Arbitration, however, and 1821 rather than by that of 1799, and thus it as had been recognized in the United States at would extend down the Pacific coast of North an earlier time, the ukase was intended pri- America to 51° (i.e., the northern tip of Van- marily to regulate the activities of Russian sub- couver Island) rather than just to 55°.10 jects, rather than to interfere with the rights of Both the British and American govern- foreigners.7 ments protested strongly against these meas- The ukase did eliminate most of the quar- ures as quickly as possible after receiving of- reling among the Russian traders themselves, ficial notification of them. Although efforts to but it had little effect upon foreign traders coordinate their protests fell through because (mainly British and American) who came to of the evident conflict between their own Alaskan waters. As a result, officials of the Rus- claims, their separate negotiations soon caused sian American Company complained to their the Russian government to moderate its stand.