The Journal of Positive Psychology Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice ISSN: 1743-9760 (Print) 1743-9779 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rpos20 Prosocial behavior increases perceptions of meaning in life Nadav Klein To cite this article: Nadav Klein (2016): Prosocial behavior increases perceptions of meaning in life, The Journal of Positive Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2016.1209541 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1209541 Published online: 18 Jul 2016. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rpos20 Download by: [Nadav Klein] Date: 18 July 2016, At: 07:15 THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, 2016 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1209541 Prosocial behavior increases perceptions of meaning in life Nadav Klein Harris School of Public Policy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Finding meaning in life is a fundamental personal need, and motivating prosocial behavior is a Received 3 October 2015 fundamental societal need. The present research tests whether the two are connected – whether Accepted 15 June 2016 helping other people can increase helpers’ perceptions of meaning in life. Evidence from a nationally KEYWORDS representative data-set and two experiments support this hypothesis. Participants who engaged in Prosocial behavior; meaning prosocial behaviors – volunteering and spending money to benefit others – reported experiencing in life; well-being; helping; greater meaning in their lives (Studies 1–3). Study 3 also identifies increased self-worth as the self-worth; self-esteem; mechanism – participants who spent money to benefit other people felt higher personal worth social connection and self-esteem, and this mediated the effect of prosocial behavior on meaningfulness. The present results join other findings in suggesting that the incentives for helping others do not necessarily depend on the prospect of others’ reciprocity. Prosocial behavior can be incentivized through the psychological benefits it creates for prosocial actors. Identifying the conditions necessary for human There are at least two reasons to predict that helping flourishing depends in part on the perspective one others can increase a sense of meaning in life. First, help- chooses to take. One can take the perspective of an ing other people can increase helpers’ sense of self-worth, average person and ask, ‘what is necessary for an indi- which is one of the basic needs that must be satisfied to vidual to flourish?’ Alternatively, one can take the per- achieve a sense of meaning in life, according to preva- spective of a community or a society composed of many lent theoretical accounts (Baumeister, 1991; Baumeister persons and ask, ‘what is necessary for a community to & Vohs, 2002). Helping other people can increase self- flourish?’ worth because prosocial behavior is universally admired Taking an individual’s perspective will invariably high- and valued (Buss, 1989; Klein, Grossman, Uskul, Kraus, & light the necessity of finding meaning in life as a fun- Epley, 2015). Helping other people is a way for helpers damental personal need (Heintzelman & King, 2014a, to gain social acceptance and build a positive reputa- 2014b). Viewing one’s own life as meaningful is associ- tion, which in turn increase helpers’ social status in their Downloaded by [Nadav Klein] at 07:15 18 July 2016 ated with greater longevity, better physical health, and communities (Flynn, 2003; Flynn, Reagans, Amanatullah, reduced depression and anxiety (Debats, Van der Lubbe, & Ames, 2006; Grant & Gino, 2010; Lee, 1997). Because & Wezeman, 1993; Krause, 2009; Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, social acceptance is a critical determinant of self-worth Bower, & Gruenewald, 2000). In contrast, taking a com- and self-esteem (Leary, 1999; Leary & Baumeister, 2000), munal perspective will invariably highlight the necessity the reputational benefits of prosocial behavior are likely to of prosocial behavior as a fundamental communal need. increase self-worth, which in turn can increase the sense Prosocial behavior is critical for creating the trust and that life is meaningful. cooperation necessary to sustain impersonal and com- Second, another reliable predictor of meaningfulness is plex societies and markets (Bowles & Gintis, 2003; Fehr & social connection with others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Schmidt, 1999; Hamilton, 1964; Henrich et al., 2011; Trivers, Debats, 1999; Lambert et al., 2013; Stavrova & Luhmann, 1971). The present research investigates whether the per- 2016). Accordingly, social exclusion and loneliness can sonal and communal perspectives are linked. Specifically, lead to substantial psychological damage, including I test whether helping other people can increase help- decreased sense of meaning in life (Cacioppo, Hawkley, ers’ perceptions of meaning in life, thereby establishing Rickett, & Masi, 2005; Cialdini & Patrick, 2008). Helping an empirical connection between personal and societal another person is one of the most basic ways to estab- flourishing. lish and reinforce social connection. Therefore, helping CONTACT Nadav Klein [email protected] © 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 N. KLEIN may increase meaningfulness by increasing the sense of test, the relationship between helping and meaningful- connection to others. The present research tests whether ness remains unclear. The present research provides three either or both of these two potential mechanisms – self- such empirical tests. worth and social connection – can explain the relationship between helping and meaningfulness. Study 1: nationally representative sample As an initial test, I used a nationally representative sample The psychological benefits of helping others of adult Americans to measure the association between a Although helping is primarily intended to benefit recipients, particular form of prosocial behavior (volunteering) and existing research finds that helping creates benefits for help- the sense of meaning in life, while controlling for various ers as well. As mentioned, the most obvious benefit helpers demographic variables. receive is a boost to their reputation in the eyes of others. Observing a person help another increases evaluations of Method the helper, and in turn motivates recipients and observ- ers to cooperate with helpers in subsequent interactions The Baylor Religion Survey, Wave 2 (Baylor University, 2007) (Almenberg, Dreber, Apicella, & Rand, 2011; Gray, Ward, & contains a nationally representative study of religious Norton, 2014; Klein & Epley, 2014). This reputational mech- values, practices, and behaviors (total N = 1648; 52.98% anism is thought to underlie a substantial portion of the women; age range = 18–96, Mage = 47.35, SDage = 16.82). incentive for prosocial behavior in general (Barclay, 2004; Among other items, this survey contains questions rele- Nowak & Sigmund, 2005; Rockenbach & Milinski, 2006). vant to the current research. Specifically, the survey asks Because helping others is viewed positively, helpers can participants to estimate the amount of hours per month expect to be rewarded with social approval and goodwill. they volunteer in three contexts: (1) volunteering for one’s Helping others also creates psychological benefits place of worship; (2) volunteering for the community, not that do not necessarily depend on others’ judgments and through one’s place of worship; and (3) volunteering for the reciprocity. Empirical evidence has thus far pointed to community, through one’s place of worship. Participants psychological benefits that are mostly hedonic in nature, answered these questions on a five-point scale (0 = none; increasing positive emotion and decreasing negative emo- 1 = one to two hours; 2 = three to four hours; 3 = five to tion. For example, spending money to benefit other peo- ten hours; or 4 = eleven or more hours). As the main inde- ple can increase happiness compared to spending money pendent variable for this study, I created a composite vol- to benefit oneself (Dunn, Aknin, & Norton, 2008; Weinstein unteering index by summing these three variables (range: & Ryan, 2010; Zaki & Mitchell, 2011). Volunteering is asso- 0–12; Mvolunteering = 1.75, SDvolunteering = 2.33). ciated with higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction The main dependent variable was a question asking (Thoits & Hewitt, 2001; Wheeler, Gorey, & Greenblatt, 1998). participants to indicate their level of agreement with Helping can also reduce sadness associated with seeing the statement ‘my life has a real purpose’ on a four-point Downloaded by [Nadav Klein] at 07:15 18 July 2016 another person in need of help (Cialdini et al., 1987). scale (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = agree; or However, meaningfulness and happiness are distinct in 4 = strongly agree). This was the only question in the important ways. For example, people find meaning in pain- survey pertaining to meaningfulness, and it is suitable ful and stressful events in their lives, despite being unlikely for measuring perceptions of meaning in life because to extract happiness from such events (Baumeister, Vohs, having a sense of purpose is integral to meaningfulness Aaker, & Garbinsky, 2013). Other experiences, such as (Heintzelman & King, 2014a, 2014b). This question con- nostalgic reflection on the past