Enactment of ‘Community’ in Community Based Natural Resources Management in Zambezi Region, Namibia Rodger Lubilo Enactment of ‘Community’ in Community Based Natural Resources Management in Zambezi Region, Namibia Rodgers Lubilo Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr H. van Dijk Personal chair at Sociology of Development and Change Group Wageningen University & Research Co-promotor Dr P. Hebinck Associate professor, Sociology of Development and Change Group Wageningen University & Research Other members Prof. Dr V.R. van der Duim, Wageningen University & Research Prof. Dr S.E. Shackleton, University of Cape Town, South Africa Prof. Dr M. Bollig, University of Cologne, Germany Prof. Dr M.J. Spierenburg, Radboud University Nijmegen This research was conducted under the auspices of the Wageningen School of Social Sciences (WASS) Enactment of ‘Community’ in Community Based Natural Resources Management in Zambezi Region, Namibia Rodgers Lubilo Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Tuesday8 May 2018 at 01.30 p.m. in the Aula. Rodgers Lubilo Enactment of ‘Community’ in Community Based Natural Resources Management in Zambezi Region, Namibia, 214 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands (2018) With references, with summary in English ISBN 978-94-6343-858-2 DOI https://doi.org/10.18174/446408 Table of Contents Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... i List of Figures ................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... vi IN MEMORY: .......................................................................................................................... x Abbreviations and Acronyms ........................................................................................... viii Chapter 1: Introducing Community Based Conservation ................................................ 1 My personal connection to conservation ................................................................ 4 Problem statement ............................................................................................... 6 Research objectives .............................................................................................. 7 Research questions .............................................................................................. 7 The thesis ............................................................................................................ 8 Chapter 2: Unpacking Conservancies in Namibia ........................................................... 11 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 11 History of CBNRM in Southern Africa ................................................................ 12 Analytical Cornerstones for CBNRM Projects ...................................................... 15 CBNRM as a global project .......................................................................................... 17 Problematizing ‘community’. ...................................................................................... 21 Research Perspective ..................................................................................................... 25 Methodes and Modes of Data collection .............................................................. 26 What is a case study? .................................................................................................... 28 Semi-structured interviews and informal interviews .............................................. 28 Direct participant observation ..................................................................................... 29 My dual role and the consequences for data collection ........................................... 29 Literature Review and Review of internal documents ............................................ 31 Study sites ........................................................................................................ 33 Chapter 3: Historical background of Zambezi Region .................................................... 35 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 35 Geography, Flora and Fauna .............................................................................. 35 Socio-political dynamics of Zambezi Region ........................................................ 37 Political and Armed Uprising ...................................................................................... 38 Ethnic Conflicts .............................................................................................................. 39 Governance and Administration ................................................................................. 40 People, Culture and Tradition ..................................................................................... 41 v Population and livelihood ............................................................................................ 42 Economy, tourism and infrastructure ........................................................................ 43 Non-governmental organisations ............................................................................... 44 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 45 Chapter 4: Introducing the conservancies and local communities ................................ 47 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 47 Registration procedures for a conservancy................................................................ 48 The three conservancies and my involvement ...................................................... 49 Wuparo Conservancy ........................................................................................ 50 Livelihoods and history ................................................................................................ 51 Conservancy formation ................................................................................................ 54 Governance ..................................................................................................................... 55 Conservancy transformation process ......................................................................... 57 Sobbe Conservancy ............................................................................................ 58 Livelihoods in Sobbe ..................................................................................................... 58 Sobbe Conservancy formation ..................................................................................... 59 Governance ..................................................................................................................... 60 Conservancy transformation process ......................................................................... 61 Kwandu Conservancy ........................................................................................ 62 Livelihoods in Kwandu ................................................................................................ 62 Kwandu Conservancy formation ................................................................................ 66 Governance ..................................................................................................................... 67 Conservancy transformation process ......................................................................... 68 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 5: The role of external agancies in the creation of conservancies and co- creation of communities ....................................................................................................... 71 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 71 NGOs and the creation of conservancies ............................................................. 71 The state agencies and conservancies .................................................................. 74 External Agency influence and re-creation of communities ................................... 74 Analysis of NGO and state intervention .............................................................. 75 Enhancing implementation of conservancies ............................................................ 76 Setting up financial management systems ................................................................. 78 Monitoring wildlife populations ................................................................................. 79 Community perceptions and experience with the conservancy model ................ 79 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 81 vi Chapter 6: Benefit Distribution: The struggles and challenges of managing conservancy funded micro-enterprise