Running head: ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH North Rupununi Wildlife Clubs: Makushi Amerindians’ Perceptions of Environmental Education and Positive Youth Development in Guyana Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Presented to the Faculty of Education University of Ottawa 20 June 2016 Ph.D. Candidate: Julie Comber Director: Dr. Bernard W. Andrews Thesis Committee Members: Dr. Richard Maclure Dr. Nicholas Ng-A-Fook Dr. Giuliano Reis External Examiner: Dr. Lisa Taylor ©Julie Comber, Ottawa, Canada, 2016 ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH II Abstract This doctoral research studied the North Rupununi Wildlife Clubs (NRWC), an Environmental Education (EE) Program for Makushi Amerindian youth in Guyana. The Club format for EE has become popular, and previous research on EE Club programs provide modest support for the hypothesis that EE Club membership increases pro-environmental attitudes and behaviour in children and youth. There is also increasing interest in the role EE Clubs can play in nurturing Positive Youth Development (PYD). This multi-site case study describes EE Clubs in three villages in the North Rupununi of Guyana. Data was collected from semi-structured interviews and focus groups with stakeholders (such as former Club members, volunteers with the Clubs, Elders, and village leaders). The researcher also kept a reflective journal. Findings suggest community members valued the positive impact they perceived participation in NRWC to have on youth and upon their community. Participants offered recommendations on how to improve the program. One of the original findings is that the Clubs may be a way to help reconnect indigenous youth with their elders and restore the transmission of Indigenous Knowledge. These findings contribute to our understanding of EE Clubs and their impact on pro- environmental behaviour, PYD, and communities. This may be relevant to other indigenous communities in isolated rural areas with EE Clubs, and to the field of EE in general. Keywords: Amerindian, Elders, Clubs, Environmental Education, Guyana, Indigenous, Makushi, Positive Youth Development, Youth. ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH III Acknowledgments Like the Rupununi’s red The Road I have travelled so many times, this PhD journey has been beautiful and challenging. And taken far longer than expected! I could not have done it without all the support and love I’ve received from so many people and from all my relations (all the beings we share Mother Earth with). I am incredibly grateful to my participants and to my friends in Guyana, most of whom live in Surama, Wowetta, Yupukari, or near Bina Hill in the North Rupununi. To name but a few friends: Bertie Xavier, Marianna Xavier, Priscilla Torres, Emily Allicock, The Honourable Sydney Allicock, Jean Allicock, Glendon Allicock, Paulette Allicock, Rebecca Xavier, Mike Martin, Kim Robertson, Alison Layton, Micah, Richardson, Russian, Rickie, Cindy, Monique, Oswin, Kim, Alex, Kevin, Bernie, Rosie, Sir Scipio, Donna, Urmalene, Belinda. Thank you Samantha James and Dr. Raquel Thomas-Caesar of Iwokrama for your assistance and advice during my 2010 reconnaisance. My sincere thanks to the North Rupununi District Development Board (NRDDB) and all your staff for partnering with me. My research was made possible due to your partnership. Thank you and much love to Edna Johnson’s family in Georgetown: Karen, Roger, Kenrick, Shawnton, and Ruth. And thank you Auntie Ella. Thank you Dr. Tanya Chung Tiam Fook. I feel I followed in your footsteps. Lisa Grund, you now carry the torch! I want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Bernie Andrews, for your guidance and for never losing faith that I would actually finish! I’m particularly grateful for how understanding and patient you were with my frequent illnesses and injuries. Thank you Drs. Richard Maclure, Nicholas Ng-A-Fook, and Giuliano Reis for being on my Thesis Committee. Thank you Dr. Lisa ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH IV Taylor for being a fabulous external examiner! Each of you supported my efforts and pushed my work in your own unique way. This Dissertation is better because of all of you. And all its inadequacies and failings are entirely my own. To the PiPs, my cohort of 10 PhD students, Nathalie, Shari (AIC!), Maria, Eric, Osnat, Joan, Christine, Amy, and Jeela: thanks for all the support and positive energy you sent my way. It's been quite the journey, and I'm grateful to each of you for being part of it! And I loved seeing those pom-poms at my defence!! Thank you also Rebecca, Filsan, Shannon, and Maria. At the Faculty of Education, special thanks to Francine and Sophie, for answering my questions and your patience! And Dr. Barwell, for believing I would finish on your watch. I am grateful for the financial support of: The International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), Ontario Graduate Studentship (OGS), and the University of Ottawa Admission Scholarship. Thank you my dear Ottawa friends! To name but a few: Albert Dumont “Oshki Nodin,” Rebecca, Kevin, Rick (AccountAbility Buddy!), Barclay, Reaz (bai!), Ogui, & Josh. Many thanks for the love, patience, and support of my family: My Mother and Robert (my mom for “Thesis Jail” and for driving from PEI to be at my defence!); my Father and Karen; Alex and Katherine, and my beloved niece Lucy and nephew Freddie (you have no idea how therapeutic it was to spend time with you and away from my Dissertation!); and Rob and Gloria. Andy, you have loved me through two and a half of the most difficult years of my life. You made my life so much better because you’ve been part of it. I’ll always be grateful. Our soon-to-be-born daughter, though you are still in my womb, you have made yourself very present in the final months of my PhD journey! I did this for you. I hope in a small way it will make the world a better place for you and for all the future generations of all our relations. ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH V Dedication This Dissertation is dedicated in loving memory to Edna Johnson, 1935-2009. You are the reason I dreamed to return to Guyana. Love Always. ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH VI Table of Contents North Rupununi Wildlife Clubs: Makushi Amerindians’ Perceptions of Environmental Education and Positive Youth Development in Guyana.................................................................. i Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iii Dedication ........................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 – Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Problem Statement ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................ 3 1.3. Situating the Researcher .............................................................................................. 5 1.4. Context: Guyana .......................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1. The North Rupununi ............................................................................................. 9 1.4.2. Brief Notes on the History of Guyana and Amerinidians ................................... 11 1.5. Situating the Participants: The Makushi .................................................................... 13 1.6. Context: Background on North Rupununi Wildlife Clubs Program .......................... 22 1.7. Structure of the Dissertation ...................................................................................... 33 Summary – Chapter 1 ....................................................................................................... 34 ENVIRONMENTAL CLUBS MAKUSHI YOUTH VII Chapter 2 - Literature Review ........................................................................................... 37 2.1. History of Environmental Education ......................................................................... 37 2.1.1. Early Western EE period, 1948-1969: Silent Spring wake-up call .................... 38 2.1.2. The 1970s: defining EE and laying foundations ................................................. 38 2.1.3. The 1980s consolidation on EE and the birth of 'Education for Sustainability' . 41 2.1.4. 1990s: Rio, and the shift from EE to ESD .......................................................... 42 2.1.5. 2000 until now .................................................................................................... 42 2.1.6. Current trends, challenges and shortcomings within the field of EE .................. 44 2.2. Club-Based Non-Formal Education Approach to Environmental Education ...........