THE COMMONWEALTH TRANS-ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 1955-1958 HOW THE CROSSING OF ANTARCTICA MOVED NEW ZEALAND TO RECOGNISE ITS ANTARCTIC HERITAGE AND TAKE AN EQUAL PLACE AMONG ANTARCTIC NATIONS A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree PhD - Doctor of Philosophy (Antarctic Studies – History) University of Canterbury Gateway Antarctica Stephen Walter Hicks 2015 Statement of Authority & Originality I certify that the work in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text. I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis. Elements of material covered in Chapter 4 and 5 have been published in: Electronic version: Stephen Hicks, Bryan Storey, Philippa Mein-Smith, ‘Against All Odds: the birth of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1955-1958’, Polar Record, Volume00,(0), pp.1-12, (2011), Cambridge University Press, 2011. Print version: Stephen Hicks, Bryan Storey, Philippa Mein-Smith, ‘Against All Odds: the birth of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1955-1958’, Polar Record, Volume 49, Issue 1, pp. 50-61, Cambridge University Press, 2013 Signature of Candidate ________________________________ Table of Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................................... ii Preface ...................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iv Acronyms .................................................................................................................................. vi Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... x 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 Polar Exploration - A Historical Perspective: ............................................................................................... 2 The Heroic Age – Britain at the Antipodes .................................................................................................. 5 The Ross Dependency – The Archipelago Expands – The Political Context ........................................ 7 The 1950’s – Decade of the TAE, the IGY and the Cold War ................................................................ 12 2. Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 16 3. Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 22 Vision of a ‘Crossing of Antarctica’ ............................................................................................................. 43 Recent books published about the TAE and the IGY .............................................................................. 46 4. The Beginning...................................................................................................................... 55 4.1 Gaining Government Approval & Commonwealth Participation .............................................................. 55 The UK TAE Decision ............................................................................................................................... 55 TAE is proposed – Polar Committee Meeting of March 1953 ................................................................... 60 Duncan Carse Enters the Scene .................................................................................................................. 62 Internal Resistance from the Foreign Office, the RGS and SPRI ............................................................... 67 The Commonwealth TAE Decisions .......................................................................................................... 74 New Zealand Makes its Decision ............................................................................................................... 78 4.2 Expedition Structure and Governance........................................................................................................ 87 The UK TAE Governance Framework ....................................................................................................... 89 Wellington Engages with its London Counterpart ..................................................................................... 91 Harry Kirkwood RN – Captain of the HMNZS Endeavour ...................................................................... 105 Selection of a Leader for the New Zealand Support Party ....................................................................... 108 4.3 Preparing for the Journeys ....................................................................................................................... 119 Advance Parties, Staffing and Training .................................................................................................... 120 Base Site Selection ................................................................................................................................... 136 The UK Base – ‘Shackleton’ .................................................................................................................... 137 The New Zealand Base – ‘Scott Base’: PART I (1955-1956) Three New Zealand Observers join Operation Deep Freeze ............................................................................................................................. 142 The New Zealand Base – ‘Scott Base’: PART II (1956-1957) After the arrival of Endeavour at McMurdo Sound ........................................................................................................................................................ 154 Routes to the Polar Plateau ....................................................................................................................... 159 4.4 The Purchase of HMNZS Endeavour ....................................................................................................... 161 5. Enter the IGY and the US Navy ...................................................................................... 178 5.1 Global Political Scene .............................................................................................................................. 178 5.2 Britain and the IGY .................................................................................................................................. 181 The ‘Commonwealth’ label and suspicion of American intentions .......................................................... 182 5.3 New Zealand and the IGY........................................................................................................................ 187 Hallett Station ........................................................................................................................................... 198 5.4 The US Navy, the IGY, and the TAE ...................................................................................................... 205 5.5 Hillary’s ‘Dash to the Pole’ – A Reprise .................................................................................................. 212 6. Legacy of the TAE ............................................................................................................ 258 6.1 Science and the TAE ................................................................................................................................ 258 6.2 Finance ..................................................................................................................................................... 262 6.3 The Trans-Antarctic Association ............................................................................................................. 265 7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 271 Epilogue ................................................................................................................................................... 283 8. Appendices ......................................................................................................................... 285 8.1 Sources ..................................................................................................................................................... 285 8.2 Interviews ................................................................................................................................................. 286 8.3 Locations .................................................................................................................................................. 287 9. References .......................................................................................................................... 288 List of Figures Figure 1: Official Crest of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition Courtesy of John Claydon ......................................................................................................................................