THESIS METHODS OF DATING GLASS BEADS FROM PROTOHISTORIC SITES IN THE SOUTH PLATTE RIVER BASIN, COLORADO Submitted by Christopher R. von Wedell Department of Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Fall 2011 Master‟s Committee Advisor: Jason M. LaBelle Sammy J. Zahran Mary Van Buren ABSTRACT METHODS OF DATING GLASS BEADS FROM PROTOHISTORIC SITES IN THE SOUTH PLATTE RIVER BASIN, COLORADO Morphological characteristics and chemical trace elements counts acquired using Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry analyses were documented for glass trade beads from 24 protohistoric archaeological assemblages in the South Platte River Basin. The resulting database was used to provide quantitative descriptions of each recorded assemblage and to characterize the types of glass beads currently reported in the region. Statistical analyses were then conducted to determine if and to what extent morphological and chemical traits change through time. Characteristics of beads in dated contexts were then used to develop a linear regression model in an attempt to determine if it is possible to estimate the age of beads from undated contexts. It is concluded that morphological and chemical characteristics of glass beads in dated contexts can be used to estimate the age of glass beads in undated contexts using linear regression. The results of this thesis demonstrate that morphological characteristics are currently more accurate and precise than chemistry although both methods hold potential for revision and improvement as more dated sites become available to supplement the statistical models. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis was made possible by the encouragement, support, and gentle nudging of many individuals and institutions. My graduate advisor, Dr. Jason LaBelle, offered me his experience, wisdom, and friendship throughout this process. His interest in my thesis and ability to inspire the interest of others in my research has been amazing. Numerous sites and collections would not have been available for inclusion in this study without his assistance in communicating with individuals and institutions as well as his impressive knowledge of, and ability to locate, copious amounts of gray literate on the topic of beads and whereabouts of specimens from the South Platte River Basin. Without his assistance many of this bead site and assemblages would have never come to light and this project would be nothing compared to what it has evolved into. I also am grateful to Dr. LaBelle‟s wife, Laura, who was very kind to me during my time in Fort Collins and occasionally provided delicious home cooked meals. Dr. Sammy Zahran showed excitement and interest in the statistical possibilities of this project long before I coded the first line of data. Dr. Mary Van Buren and Dr. Jeffrey G. Snodgrass made themselves available whenever I had questions or concerns about the direction of my project and also suggested numerous articles that helped to guide my research and keep me on the right path. Dr. Charles Reher and Dr. Laura Scheiber pioneered some of the ideas that are expounded upon in this thesis. Their work in Wyoming provided inspiration and iii guidance. Both individuals also offered their knowledge and experience to me as I entered the relatively unexplored world of glass beads in the Great Plains. Dr. William Billeck also offered his knowledge on the subject of glass beads and chemical trace element analysis. A brief discussion with him at the 2006 Plains Anthropological Conference provided one of my greatest driving inspirations to pursue this topic before I had fully developed any of my research questions. Avocational archaeologists Garry Weinmeister and Tom and Myra Westfall allowed me to view their collections of archaeological glass trade beads which greatly enhanced my dataset and the overall results of this thesis. I sincerely appreciate their help. Remaining bead sites were made available for analysis by the Colorado State University Laboratory of Public Archaeology, the Denver Museum of Nature & Science, the Colorado History Museum, the Greeley Municipal Museum, the Museum of Natural History at the University of Colorado-Boulder, the Loveland Museum, and the Fort Collins Museum. I thank all of these facilities and would like to make a special acknowledgment to Bridget Ambler of the Colorado Historical Society and Dr. Steve Holen of the Denver Museum of Nature & Science. Both individuals provided insight and spoke with me extensively about their experiences working with glass beads. This thesis could not have been completed without financial assistance in the form of grants and scholarships from the Colorado State Historical Fund, the Alice Hamilton Scholarship (the Colorado Archaeological Society), the Doris and Jim Greenacre Scholarship (Northern Colorado chapter, Colorado Archaeological Society), the Karen S. Greiner Endowment for Colorado Archaeology (Colorado State University), the Ward F. Weakly Scholarship (Colorado Council of Professional Archaeologists). Thank you to iv these organizations and their generous support. Thanks to Dr. Hector Neff and the California State University-Long Beach Institute for Integrated Research in Materials, Environment, and Society (IIRMES) who performed Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry analysis for this thesis. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Neff and IIRMES who were able to offer me discounted analysis rates thanks to a National Science Foundation Grant (BCS-0604712). Fellow graduate students and friends were a helpful source of inspiration during the writing process. Many individuals read drafts, reviewed charts and figures, and offered suggestions that ultimately improved the final outcome of this research project. I would like to thank Cody Newton, Jason Flay, Orrin Koenig, Judy Cooper, Florencia Pezzutti, Eric Johnson, Naomi Ollie, Shane Rosenthal, Colin Ferriman, Brittney Beecher, Chaz Evans, and Erin Parks. I am particularly grateful to Cody Newton, a reliable friend and colleague, for providing information on the Lykins Valley site (5LR263) and allowing me the opportunity to analyze its bead assemblage. I would also like to offer a special thanks to Ashleigh Knapp. Ashleigh was there for me when the idea of writing was least appealing and encouraged me to forge onward. Her assistance with editing has proved invaluable and I am truly grateful for her friendship. Finally, I want to thank my family. My sister, Megan, continuously offered support and encouragement throughout this process. My mother and father, Susan and John von Wedell, have helped me achieve everything that I have set out to do. They have been an inspiration in my education and my life and offered support in countless ways. I am eternally grateful for everything you have given me. Thank you for always being there for me. This thesis is for you. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1 Statement of Purpose ....................................................................................................... 2 Organization of Thesis .................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT ......................... 7 Glass Bead Origins and Trade ......................................................................................... 8 South Platte River Basin Historical Context ................................................................. 12 Indirect Contact Phase (AD 1540-1802) ................................................................... 12 Transitional Contact Phase (AD 1803-1820) ............................................................ 17 Direct Contact Phase (AD 1821-1832) ...................................................................... 19 Trading Post Phase (AD 1833-1850)......................................................................... 21 Expansion and Conflict Phase (AD 1851-1869) ....................................................... 25 Native American Relocation Phase (AD 1869-1880) ............................................... 32 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER 3: METHODS ............................................................................................... 36 Site Discovery ............................................................................................................... 37 Site Location and Context ............................................................................................. 38 vi Macroscopic Analysis ................................................................................................... 38 Chemical Trace Element Analysis ................................................................................ 47 Bead and