KATHAKALI – A STUDY OF THE AESTHETIC PROCESSES OF POPULAR SPECTATORS AND ELITIST APPRECIATORS ENGAGING WITH PERFORMANCES IN KERALA. JOHN GLYNN A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Performance Studies Faculty of Arts University of Sydney December 2001 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Tim Fitzpatrick and Dr Vivienne Kondos, who provided extensive stimulus and support throughout my studies. I am indebted to all those in Kerala who assisted so willingly in my field work. My particular thanks go to my research assistant, P.Krishnan Kutty, who accompanied me to so many performances and provided invaluable assistance in the conducting of interviews with spectators, and to his family who so warmly opened their home to me. I am very grateful to Asha Menon who welcomed me to Kerala and her home and provided such useful introductions and her personal assistance in interviewing Ammanur Madhavar Chakyar. Ammanur Madhavar Chakyar and Iyyamkode Sreedharan, respectively, were unstinting in the invaluable gift of their time and shared experience for my interviews. Rajanand and his family made me most welcome at a private performance at Raj Bhavan. My thanks go to all of the staff and students of the Kerala Kalamandalam who made me so welcome in their classes and at their performances and provided so many helpful suggestions. I also wish to acknowledge my gratitude to the residents of the districts of Trichur and Palghat, particularly the many performers and onlookers who shared their knowledge and friendship. To my partner, Raj Kumar, and the many other people who have encouraged or supported me in one way or another I am deeply grateful. ii Kathakali – a study of the aesthetic processes of popular spectators and elitist appreciators engaging with performances in Kerala. John Glynn ABSTRACT This thesis looks at the diverse aesthetic approaches of onlookers to Kathakali, a traditional dance-drama extant in Kerala, India. Its particular contribution is based on fieldwork undertaken in the period 1991-93, especially in the districts of Trichur and Palghat, and distinguishes a continuum of two over-lapping broad groups: popular spectators and elitist appreciators who provide different, contesting voices in the interviews. The aesthetic processes of individuals within these groups of onlookers and the ways in which they may gradually change form the primary focus of this work. Respondents to interviews provide diverse descriptions of their interactions with performances according to their perceived membership to groups of popular spectators or elitist appreciators. They also identify dimensions of performance that may contribute to the development of their own performance competence and their subsequent transition from one group of onlookers to another. The influences that shape the diverse approaches of these groups and have been examined here include traditional Hindu aesthetics, religion, politics, caste structures and the changing shape of patronage, which is itself also a reflection of historical factors of governance. Kathakali is first presented as vignettes of performance that reflect different locations, venues, patronage and program choices. It is then situated in relation to extant, contiguous performance genres that have contributed to its development and/or often share its billing in traditional settings. The politics and aesthetics of the worlds of Kathakali are looked at not only in terms of their traditional, folkloric and classical development but also in contrast to more contemporary, secular and controversial dynamics that are impacting upon Kathakali today. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations ix Chapter One – Historicising Kathakali Introduction 1 Part I – A Linear Perspective: The Formative Years 5 The Rise of the Bhakti Movement 6 Patrons, Prestige and Popularity 7 The Prince of Kottarakara 8 Vettatu Raja 8 The Prince of Kottayam 9 The Period of Maturation 10 Kapplingattu Nambudiri 12 Lines of Transmission – sampradayas 13 The Modern Period 14 Mahakavi Vallottol, the Kerala Kalamandalam and Margi 15 Part II – Modernity and Postcoloniality: Forging a National Identity 17 Pre-Independence Modernity and the Romantic 19 Orientalism and Textual Politics 23 Marxism and Postcoloniality 24 Postcolonial Performance 26 Part III - Aesthetics and Emotions: Defining Aesthetics for Anthropology 28 West meets East: Possible Correlatives with Indian Aesthetics 31 Transcendence and Indian Aesthetics 33 Possible Vectors of Aesthetic Experience in Kathakali 36 iv Chapter Two – An Approach to Kathakali Performance Introduction 42 Organising the Fieldwork 44 The Partiality to Orthodoxy in Reporting Kathakali 51 Utilising the Interview Responses 53 Chapter Three – Patrons, Venues and Programs Introduction 57 Kettaya, Palghat District, 1.12.1991 59 Levancheri Temple, near Kolankord, Palghat District, 7.12.1991 70 The M.K.K.Nayar Memorial Hall, F.A.C.T. Industrial Estate, Udyogmandal, 10.12.1991 77 The Residence of Rajanand, Raj Bhavan, Karalmanna, Cherpulasseri, 17.12.1991 83 Kerala Kalamandalam Koothambulam, Cheruthuruthy, 18.12,1991 88 Trichur Kathakali Club, Regional Theatre, Trichur, 20.12.1991 92 Palghat Kathakali Club, School Building, Palghat, 25.1.1992 93 Conclusion 95 Chapter Four – Contiguous Performance Genres Introduction 96 Contiguous Performance Contexts and Inter-textual Relations to Kathakali 100 Teyyam - “dance of the gods” - in relation to Kathakali 102 Ayyappan Tiyatta - a narrative link between ritual, iconography and Kathakali 111 The Natyasastra - providing the classical tones of Kathakali 115 v Sanskrit Drama and Kuttiyattam - classical ancestry to Kathakali 119 Chakyar Kuttu Performances - extrapolating the stage manager from Kuttiyattam and creating a mono-actor performance genre 122 Krishnattom/Ramanattom - the immediate progenitors of Kathakali 129 Kalarippayatt - martial art contributing movement in Kathakali 133 Nascent Kathakali - a popular move out of the temple and into the square, and into the vernacular 134 Conclusions 136 Chapter Five – Caste, Colonialism, Land Reforms and Kathakali Patronage Introduction 137 The Injustices of Caste-ism and the Impetus for Reform 139 Kingship and the Brahmanical Institutions 143 The Inter-relations of the Brahmins and the Nairs in Kerala Society and in Kathakali 145 Land Reforms and the Re-shaping of Wealth and Patronage 148 Conclusions 152 Chapter Six – Myth and Intertextuality Introduction 154 Mystification and a World of Dreams 159 Myths, Archetypes and Performance Competence 164 Mythic Ground and Performance Strategies in Kathakali 169 The Role of Myth and Traditional Aesthetics in the Semiosis of Kathakali 175 Conclusions 181 vi Chapter Seven – Respondents’ Orientation on Stories and their Characters Introduction 183 Spectator Discourses - Stories and Characters: 189 On Cutting One’s Teeth on Kathakali: Sabarinath 190 On Learning by Attending to the Story: Kumar 191 On the Problems of the Generation: Narayana Menon 193 On Understanding the Gestures: Velayudhan 194 On Understanding the Divine Images: Thailambal 196 On Knowing the Texts: K.V.Raja Lakshmi 196 On What Is “Fitting” to Kathakali: Kumar and C.Balakrishnan 197 On Stages of Learning for an “Appreciator”: M.V.Radha Krishnan 198 On the Elusive “Kathakalic” factor: T.S.Madhavan Kutty 204 Conclusions 210 Chapter Eight – Politics of the “Popular” Introduction 212 The Political Culture of Kerala 214 Formulations of Iyyamkode Sreedharan’s Discourse 215 Manavavijayam: “People’s Victory” 219 “Message of Love” 221 The Survival of Caste-ism and the Dominance of Brahmin Aesthetics 225 Moving Kathakali Training into the Times 226 What are the “Popular” and the “Political” of Sreedharan? 229 The Continuing Process of Popularising 232 Manipulating the Popular Dimension of Religious and Mythic Realities 233 Conclusions 236 vii Chapter Nine – Sacralising Kathakali and Tapping into Sorrow Introduction 238 Religion, Worship and Contemplation 241 Sacralising Sorrow 246 Performance Competence and Sacrality 251 Conclusions 258 Chapter Ten – Discourses on Performance Competence Introduction 261 Integrality in Kathakali 265 Distinguishing Performance Competencies for Kathakali: “In your opinion can everyone enjoy Kathakali alike?” 267 On Just watching the Spectacle and the Developing of Competence? 268 The Imperative of Knowing the Story as Key to Developing Competence? 270 The Perception of Integrality as Performance Competence? 272 Knowledge of the Mudra Narration as Performance Competence? 273 Song, Rhythm and Music as Performance Competence? 274 Conditions for Acquiring Performance Competence? 275 Perceived Individual Tastes in Approaching Kathakali 279 Conclusions 280 Concluding Remarks 283 Appendix One – Ayyappa’s Story 287 Appendix Two – Theory of Rasa 289 Appendix Three – Frequencies of Favourites 292 Notes 298 Glossary 308 Bibliography 312 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Roudra (angry) Bhima in “Duryodhana Vada” (“The Slaying of Duryodhana”) played by Kalamandalam Balasubrahnmanian at F.A.C.T., Udyoggamandal, 10.12.’91 42 2. Kettaya Temple Festival, Palghat District – outside the temple, late afternoon, 1.12.’91 60 3. Kettaya Temple Festival, Palghat District – elephant circumambulation inside temple compound, 1.12.’91 61 4. Kettaya Temple festival, Palghat District – Expectant crowd before curtained stage scaffolding adjacent to temple, 1.12.’91 62 5. Damyanti, wife of King Nala and Kesini, her companion (Minukku