Community-Based Conservation and Protected Areas in Namibia: Social-Ecological Linkages for Biodiversity By Arthur Hoole A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Natural Resources Institute University of Manitoba Winnipeg, Manitoba March, 2008 THE UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES ***** COPYRIGHT PERMISSION Community-Based Conservation and Protected Areas in Namibia: Social-Ecological Linkages for Biodiversity By Arthur Hoole A Thesis/Practicum submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of the University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (c) 2008 Permission has been granted to the Library of the University of Manitoba to lend or sell copies of this thesis/practicum, to the National Library of Canada to microfilm this thesis and to lend or sell copies of the film, and to University Microfilms Inc. to publish an abstract of this thesis/practicum. This reproduction or copy of this thesis has been made available by authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research, and may only be reproduced and copied as permitted by copyright laws or with express written authorization from the copyright owner. i To the memory of my parents, and for Leslie ii ABSTRACT This study investigates the premise that national park designations and management in Southern Africa decoupled indigenous communities from their local ecosystems. The research explores ways and means to recouple communities and national parks to promote biodiversity. The relationships are characterized between Namibia’s community-based resource management program (CBNRM), conservancies, and protected areas system, with particular reference to the Ehi-rovipuka Conservancy and Etosha National Park in northern Namibia. This is a sparsely populated, arid region, marked by recurrent drought, a stunning wildlife spectacle, and ethnically diverse, communal area villages. The nature and consequences of decoupled social-ecological systems between community and national park are elucidated. Institutional linkages and interplay are identified and described in and between community-based conservation and national parks. Alternative approaches are suggested to the strict protection regimes that typify IUCN Category II National Parks. A qualitative research approach is employed, featuring a case study and several different and interrelated methods of data collection and analysis. Fieldwork in Namibia was completed over a 6 month period. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 51 different key informants representing a cross-section of NGOs, private enterprise, international donors, Namibia’s Ministry of Environment and Tourism, communities and conservancies. Structured interviews were conducted in the case study community of Otjokavare with 40 Herero villagers in the Otjiherero language, employing a community interpreter and field assistant. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods were also employed, including participant observation, memory mapping by 3 village elders, local knowledge mapping by 6 village men and women, and a national park and conservation awareness exercise by 34 Grade 7 pupils at the community primary school. Field research findings were supplemented and triangulated with park and wildlife legislative and policy analyses, as well as the extensive study of regional literature and data sources. Findings reveal an historic and systemic decoupling of social and ecological linkages by national parks in Southern Africa. Colonial wildlife and protected areas legislation, policies and management practice decoupled indigenous peoples from places and resources they traditionally occupied and used in protected areas, iii criminalizing their use of wildlife. The separate removals of Hai||om Bushman and Herero communities from Etosha National Park by central government are presented as compelling examples. Herero elders in Otjokavare shared their memories in narratives and maps, telling a story of forced relocation from and denied return to their ancestral place in the park. Namibia’s CBNRM program and the creation of conservancies on communal lands have recently devolved rights in wildlife to communal area villagers, fostering institutions for community-based conservation. This has been an evolutionary process spanning a 25 year period. Institutional interplay, multiple level linkages and partnerships have proven to be important in this process. Dense social networks of national NGOs, working in support of communal conservancies, and mediating international donor funding, are especially noteworthy. But, partnerships and supportive networks in community-based conservation do not yet bridge the gap between communities and national parks, which still emphasize a command-and-control approach to wildlife management. Villagers of the Ehi-rovipuka Conservancy identify a range of prospective benefits they would like to enjoy from living next to the Etosha National Park. These are then portrayed as potential mechanisms in a model for recoupling social-ecological linkages between communities and national parks. Key attributes of community and natural resources are suggested for effective monitoring, as are incentives and sanctions, to achieve biodiversity and sustainable development outcomes. Dynamic and mobile community-conserved areas, integrated conservation corridors, integrated community- conserved areas and state protected areas are envisioned within a collaborative, adaptive and wide area landscape approach to biodiversity conservation. These represent alternatives to the strict protection regimes of IUCN Category II National Parks, emphasizing ‘community’ and community-based conservation, in contrast to typologies of park and protected area. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Any endeavour of this magnitude requires the patience, support and encouragement of many. My family has been everything to me on this journey. My parents encouraged me at every stage of life and inspired me with their love of people and nature. Our sons Trent and Grant have provided constant encouragement and taken an abiding interest in my progress. My wife Leslie has accompanied me each step of the way, meticulously recording each interview I conducted with the villagers of Otjokavare and taking every twist and turn on the long road from Winnipeg to northern Namibia. She fully shares the accomplishment of completing this trip. I am especially indebted to particular individuals for their support. Dr. Fikret Berkes challenged and encouraged me as my advisor, inspiring me with his remarkable scholarship. Each member of my thesis committee provided important and valued guidance. Dr. Jim Gardner challenged me to read widely and to never forget important environmental context. Dr. Leslie King’s enthusiasm for my subject and her special effort to travel to Namibia and provide on the spot feedback is greatly appreciated. Dr. Stuart Marks shared deep insights from his vast work in Africa, suggested important readings, and provided much needed practical advice. Dr. John Sinclair provided regular encouragement and reminded me to focus my work. I received much valued cooperation and guidance in the field. Garth-Owen Smith and Dr. Margaret Jacobsohn, founding directors of Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC), reviewed my research proposal and agreed to be my local cooperating agency in Namibia. They also welcomed me at IRDNC’s Wereldsend Environmental Centre in the Kunene Region early in my fieldwork. Karen Nott, Coordinator of IRDNC’s Windhoek office, provided helpful guidance in obtaining research permits and suggested useful research contacts. Dr. Peter Tarr, Executive Director of the Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAEIA), and Gudrun Denker, SAEIA’s Office Manager, kindly provided office space when I was in Windhoek, including Internet access and photocopying services. They also provided invaluable advice and suggested contacts. John Hazam, Senior Advisor with the Legal Assistance Centre in Windhoek, and Chris Weaver, Chief of Party, World Wildlife Fund (US), took a particular interest in my research and provided much valued discussion and information. Alfons Mosimane, Head of the Life Sciences Division, MDRCC, University of v Namibia, exchanged useful ideas and gave access to a wealth of related research materials. Hertha Nakathingo of the Namibia Nature Federation kindly oriented me to the CONINFO GIS data base and supplied me with a full digital copy for use in my map preparations. Of course, my work simply could not have been completed without the cooperation of the many persons I met and interviewed in Namibia, most especially the villagers of Otjokavare. I am forever indebted to all of them and single out Asser K. Ujaha, my community interpreter and assistant in Otjokavare, for his particular contributions and friendship. I also wish to give special thanks to headman Langman Muzuma and two other village elders, Festus Kaijao Vejorerako and Fanwell Ndiva, who recorded their remarkable memories in maps. Langman Muzuma and Festus Kaijao Vejorerako are both very aged and suffering from poor health, yet they shared their time and stories in an animated and heartfelt way. I wish to acknowledge the skills of several in the production of this document. My colleague Rob Nedotiafko converted my hand drawings and sketches into effective figures. Christopher Werner applied