Running head: MASTURBATION AND THE SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD 1 Feelin’ Myself: The Sexual Double Standard and Perceived Sexualities of Hypothetical Men and Women Engaging in Masturbation by Katherine Haus A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the University Honors Program University of Minnesota Duluth Advisor: Ashley Thompson, Psychology Duluth, MN April, 2018 MASTURBATION AND THE SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD 2 Feelin’ Myself: The Sexual Double Standard and Perceived Sexualities of Hypothetical Men and Women Engaging in Masturbation Masturbation has long been held as a common behavior, and is decidedly beneficial to those who engage in it over the course of their lifetimes (Hurlbert & Whittaker, 1991; Coleman, 2002; Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). For example, masturbation is indicative of sexual health and normative sexual function in that it can aid in understanding of sexual response and autonomy, which can increase positivity in intimate experiences (Coleman, 2002). It is also an indicator of positive sexual development and confidence in body image, as well as being comfortable with ones’ own genitalia (Kaestle & Allen, 2011). Masturbation can also be seen as an indicator of sexual self-efficacy and sexual empowerment through enabling people to take charge of their own sexual experiences and their ownership of their bodies (Bowman, 2014). In addition to these benefits, engaging in this behavior can lead to more satisfying sexual relationships (Hurlbert & Whittaker, 1991). In fact, masturbation has been recommended by sexologists to improve overall sexual health in both men and women, and to improve body image and genital familiarity (Coleman, 2002; McCormick, 1994). Reports and Frequency of Masturbation Masturbation is an activity that begins early on in life, and continues throughout (Herbenick et al., 2010; Herbenick et al., 2017; Coleman, 2002). The frequency of this behavior has been shown to increase through the developmental stages of adolescence, where it peaks and plateaus at early adulthood (Herbenick et al., 2010, Herbenick et al., 2017). Masturbation is highly common within the population of the United States, with 80%-94% of adult men and 58%-84% of adult women reporting experience with masturbation over the course of their lifetimes (Herbenick et al., 2010; Herbenick et al., 2017). In addition to that, 44% of adult men and 13% of adult women sampled reported masturbating two times per week, which indicates the MASTURBATION AND THE SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD 3 considerably high frequency of this behavior within those studied (Herbenick et al., 2010; Herbenick et al., 2017). The commonality of this behavior makes it characteristic of normative adult life and sexual function. Thus, the current study aims to examine evaluations of hypothetical adults engaging in this behavior. Attitudes and Stigma related to Masturbation Despite the numerous benefits and the relatively high frequency with which adults engage in masturbation, this behavior remains highly stigmatized (Coleman, 2002). In recent years, sexologists and sex-positive psychologists have called for a change in the way this behavior is viewed and treated both in sexual education and within society (Coleman, 2002). Instead of being viewed according to stigma and traditional perspectives, these professionals ask that it be considered as a common activity of human beings (Coleman, 2002). Regardless of the acceptance of this behavior within the academic community, discussion of this behavior by people outside of this field is often harshly reacted to (Kaestle & Allen, 2011; Coleman, 2002) which contributes to the negativity surrounding this subject. This behavior is so highly stigmatized that discussion of it can cause people to lose their careers, as evidenced when the U.S. Surgeon General Jocelyn Elders was asked to step down in 1994 after a speech that suggested the healthy basis of masturbation, and called for it to be taught in schools in sexual education courses (Kaestle & Allen, 2011; Coleman, 2002). As a result, many do not learn about masturbation as a positive indicator of sexual health, which contributes to the level of stigma surrounding this behavior. This stigma can cause feelings of guilt that can create self-esteem issues and feelings of alienation in relationships (Kaestle & Allen, 2011). A Conceptual Framework for Studying Attitudes toward Masturbation Although there are numerous explanations for the judgments incurred by individuals who engage in certain sexual behaviors, the most prominent is Sexual Script Theory (SST; Gagnon & MASTURBATION AND THE SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD 4 Simon, 1973), which proposes that all social behaviors (including sexual behaviors) are scripted and socially determined. These sexual scripts have been popularized through ancient disapproval of prominent western religions like Christianity (Coleman, 2002), which contribute to the taboo surrounding masturbation by considering it to be unnatural, and against the biblical purposes of sex (Bullough, 2003). During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, masturbation was believed to be a source of illness worthy of institutionalization (Bullough 2003), and even Freud, who continues to be discussed heavily today regarding sexual behaviors and fixations despite being widely discredited, held this behavior to be a behavioral addiction that contributed to neurosis (Madanikia, Bartholomew & Cytrynbaum, 2013). Later views on masturbation considered it to be a cure for hysteria, whereby doctors in hospitals would use it as a “treatment” on stricken female clients (Madanikia et al., 2013). These views on masturbation helped to define social perceptions on the topic, which contribute to the values with which we are socialized. Gender differences in sexual scripts. According to SST, men and women learn different social scripts, as they are socialized differently. Following these sexual scripts, heterosexual men are supposed to be sexually aggressive and dominant, whereas heterosexual women take the part of being the submissive member in the partnership (Sanchez et al., 2012). In particular, men are encouraged to seek sexual outlets and pursue all sexual opportunities that arise, whereas women are socialized to be sexually disinterested, valuing instead sustained romantic relationships. According to these sexual scripts, women are to be desired, but not desiring of sex, and men to be not desired, but desiring of sex (Masters et al., 2013). In other words, men are to be sexually aggressive, and women to be sexually submissive (Sanchez et al., 2012). Despite these scripts still being commonly and strongly adhered to, the conformity to these sexually scripted roles in relationships is actually highly damaging to the relationships MASTURBATION AND THE SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD 5 where it is present, as it contributes to inequity between partners (Masters et al., 2013). Adherence to these roles can also cause issues as far as self-esteem issues with not feeling desired or feeling powerless over sexual interactions, as well as lower sexual satisfaction among women (Sanchez et al., 2012). Although these strict gender roles can be individually and interpersonally damaging, violations of these norms are met with high levels of social disapproval and reflections upon the norm breaker as being someone who is deviant from the rest of society (Sanchez et al., 2012). The prevalence of these commonly held attitudes on masturbation and sexuality mean that we learn these views from birth, and they are ingrained within our society through the long history that we have had with issues regarding sexuality. When people violate these norms, they are often judged very harshly, sometimes with differing levels of severity depending on the gender of the person engaging in these behaviors. Sexual Scripts in the Media. Currently, negativity toward this behavior in both men and women is purported today through the media and popular depictions of masturbation. In fact, because masturbation is often an uncomfortable topic for parents and sexual health educators alike, the majority of adolescents and young adults learn about masturbation from their peers or the depictions evident within the media (Kaestle & Allen, 2011). As the media is a tool heavily utilized during the socialization process, the views reflected therein may serve to reflect the norms that are internalized by society, further ingraining normative sexual scripts (Madanikia et al., 2013). In popular movies in North America, the masturbatory scenes featuring men characters were found to be slightly negative, and the scenes featuring women characters were categorized as slightly positive, which could thusly be attributed to societal norms (Madanikia et al., 2013). However, as the traditional view of women’s sexuality has been that it exists primarily for male satisfaction, it is possible that the positive female ratings in the scenes described could MASTURBATION AND THE SEXUAL DOUBLE STANDARD 6 be due to the sexualization of these acts for male pleasure (Bowman, 2014; Fahs & Frank, 2012) and may also be linked with specific attractiveness to the individual depicted as engaging in masturbation (Madanikia et al., 2013). With regard to these sexual scripts, this study sought to examine the potentially differing views of society in regard to the gender of the individual engaging in masturbation. The Sexual Double Standard. Not only can SST explain gender differences in reported sexuality, but it can also help to explain the presence of the sexual