UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE THE RAVENSCROFT II SITE: A LATE PALEO-INDIAN WINTER BISON KILL EVENT IN THE OKLAHOMA PANHANDLE A THESIS SUBMITTED TO GRADUATE FACULTY In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS By FAISAL S. MUHAMMAD Norman, Oklahoma 2017 THE RAVENSCROFT II SITE: A LATE PALEO-INDIAN WINTER BISON KILL EVENT IN THE OKLAHOMA PANHANDLE A THESIS APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY BY ____________________________________ Dr. Leland Bement Chair ____________________________________ Dr. Bonnie Pitblado ____________________________________ Dr. Asa Randall © Copyright by FAISAL S. MUHAMMAD 2017 All Rights Reserved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a debt of gratitude to numerous individuals who have helped me with my studies, research, and this thesis. I would first like to acknowledge Dr. Leland Bement for mentoring, advising, and most importantly believing in me as I undertook this journey. I would like to thank Jenna Domeischel for the many hours spent helping me to improve my writing, you were a tremendous help. I would like to thank Shelly Fought and Dr. Deeanne Wymer for unknowingly sending me down the path I walk today. Lastly, I would like to give thanks to my mother, Deirdre Ginyard who constantly reminded me to never let fear stand in my way. I love you always. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................iv Chapter 1: Introduction......................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Theories of behavior and procurement............................................................3 Behavioral Ecology and Foraging Models............................................................3 Foraging Models....................................................................................................5 Bison Procurement Models...................................................................................9 Chapter 3: Environment..................................................................................................14 Physiography and Geology..................................................................................14 Soils.....................................................................................................................16 Climate................................................................................................................18 Vegetation............................................................................................................19 Chapter 4: Cultural Periods.............................................................................................21 Pre-Clovis............................................................................................................21 Paleo-Indian Periods............................................................................................22 Archaic Cultural Periods on the Southern Plains................................................34 Chapter 5: The Ravenscroft Site......................................................................................38 Site Setting...........................................................................................................38 Site Discovery and History of Investigations......................................................39 Chapter 6: Methods.........................................................................................................44 Excavation Methods............................................................................................44 Tahphonomy........................................................................................................46 Projectile Point Analysis.....................................................................................46 Chapter 7: Radiocarbon Dating.......................................................................................49 Chapter 8: Results............................................................................................................51 Surface Factors....................................................................................................52 Sub-Surface Factors.............................................................................................53 Cultural Analysis.................................................................................................54 Seasonality...........................................................................................................55 v Bonebed Analysis................................................................................................57 Lithic Qualitative Analysis..................................................................................66 Chapter 9: Discussion......................................................................................................68 Chapter 10: Conclusions..................................................................................................76 Future Investigation.............................................................................................79 Bibliography....................................................................................................................81 Appendix.......................................................................................................................101 vi TABLES Table 1. Pitblado (2003) lithic qualitative analysis ........................................................48 Table 2. Radiocarbon dates.............................................................................................50 Table 3. Bison faunal elements.......................................................................................52 Table 4. Spiral fractures, cut marks, fetal elements........................................................54 vii FIGURES Figure 1. Ravenscroft II geographic location....................................................................2 Figure 2. General view from Ravenscroft II; facing North, showing eroded landscape.15 Figure 3. Profile trench 2013 field season.......................................................................41 Figure 4. Auger hole at the southern extent of the buried arroyo....................................41 Figure 5. Initial 6 excavation units: 2013 field season....................................................42 Figure 6. Expanded excavation units: 2015 field season................................................43 Figure 7. Skull encased in foam......................................................................................45 Figure 8. Uncovered lanceolate projectile point..............................................................47 Figure 9. Weathered bone from a potentially earlier kill event.......................................53 Figure 10. Calf mandible in foam ...................................................................................56 Figure 11. X-ray of calf mandible...................................................................................56 Figure 12. North wall profile...........................................................................................58 Figure 13. Articulated half: vertebral column articulated to the accompanying pelvis..59 Figure 14. Mandibles resting atop limb elements...........................................................59 Figure 15. Vertebral column with articulated rib bones..................................................60 Figure 16. Animal laid on its stomach for butchering.....................................................61 Figure 17. Articulated vertebral column, including thoracic vertebrae and front lower limbs ...............................................................................................................................61 Figure 18. Partially articulated lower limb......................................................................62 Figure 19. Completely articulated lower limb.................................................................62 Figure 20. Skull with articulated axis and vertebrae.......................................................63 Figure 21. Large skull sealed in protective foam exposed in profile trench ..................64 Figure 22. Skull with missing mandible exposed in profile trench.................................64 Figure 23. Mussel shell tool in situ….............................................................................65 Figure 24. Mussel shell tool in situ in the bone bed........................................................65 Figure 25. Recovered lanceolate projectile point............................................................67 Figure 26. Two flakes removed for a hafting element....................................................67 viii Figure 27. Partially butchered animals............................................................................70 Figure 28. Vertebral column units...................................................................................70 Figure 29. Pelvic girdle units...........................................................................................71 Figure 30. Rear limb units...............................................................................................71 Figure 31. Front limb units..............................................................................................72 Figure 32. Front limb units..............................................................................................72