People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Larbi Ben M’hidi University-Oum El Bouaghi Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of English British Foreign Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire: The Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Letters and Languages, Department of English in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Anglo –American studies By: Belhatem Romaissa Jury: Supervisor: Dr. Maameri Fatima Chairman: Filali Bilel Examiner: Merah Fatima 2018-2019 ABSTRACT Instability in the Middle East today is a result of old commercial and diplomatic relations between England and the Ottoman Empire that ended in antagonisms. The 16 th century marked the early modern encounter between England and the Ottoman Empire. From trade initiatives via the Levant Company to foreign policy, the Anglo-Ottoman relations were established. In the 19 th century,however, the balance of power had changed. The Ottoman Empire witnessed continuous domestic and international crises and loss of power. To weaken the internally and to accomplish its imperialistic goals, Britain supported Arabs’ aspirations for independence from Ottoman rule. Meanwhile, in secret negotiations with France, Britain planned for the division of the Ottoman Empire’s possessions in the Middle East amongst them. In 1916, the British and French representatives Sir Mark Sykes and François George Picot signed a secret agreement, known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which partitioned the Middle East region into spheres of influence and redraw the map of the entire region. ﻣﻠﺨـــــــــــــــــﺺ ﺇﻥ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﻫﻮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺇﻧﺠﻠﺘﺮﺍ ﻭﺍﻹﻣﺒﺮﺍﻁﻮﺭ ﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﺍء ، ﺷﻬ ﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺇ ﻧﺠﻠﺘﺮﺍ ﻭﺍﻹﻣﺒﺮﺍﻁﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ، ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﻼﺩ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻡ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ، ﺗﻢ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻧﺠﻠﻮ - ﻋﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ. ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﻣﻴﺰﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﻭ ﺷﻬﺪﺕ ﺍﻹﻣﺒﺮﺍﻁﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺃﺯﻣ ﺎﺕ ﻣﺤﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺩﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻭﻓﻘﺪﺍﻥ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭ. ﻹ ﺿﻌﺎﻑ ﺳﻴﺎﺩ ﺗﻬﺎﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﺑﺪﻋﻢ ﺗﻄﻠﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺏ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﻼﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻮ ﻥ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻓﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻣﺒﺮﻳﺎﻟﻴﺔ . ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺧﻄﻄﺖ ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻣﻤﺘﻠﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻣﺒﺮﺍﻁﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﻊ ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﺳﺮﻳﺔ. ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ 1916 ، ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﺜﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻲ ﻭﺍ ﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺮ ﻣﺎﺭﻙ ﺳﺎﻳﻜﺲ ﻭﻓﺮﺍﻧﺴﻮﺍ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ ﺑﻴﻜﻮ ﺑﻌﻘﺪ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗ ﻴﺔ ﺳﺮﻳﺔ ﺗ، ﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺳﺎﻳﻜﺲ ﺑﻴﻜﻮ، ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﻮﻟﺖ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟ ﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﻭ ﺃﻋﺎﺩﺕ ﺭﺳﻢ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺑﺄﻛﻤﻠﻬﺎ . RESUME Aujourd'hui,L'instabilité au Moyen-Orient est le résultat de l'ancienne relations commercial et diplomatiques entre l'Angleterre et l'Empire ottoman, qui s'est terminée dans l'hostilité, le seizième siècle a vu la rencontre précoce entre l'Angleterre et l'Empire ottoman, des initiatives commerciales à travers la Compagnie du Levant a la Politique étrangère, les relations Anglo-Ottomanes ont été établies. Au 19ème siècle, l'équilibre des pouvoirs a changé et l'Empire ottoman a connu des crises intérieures, internationales continue et la perte de pouvoir. Pour affaiblir sa souveraineté intérieure, la Grande- Bretagne a soutenu les aspirations des Arabes à l'indépendance de la domination ottomane pour atteindre ses objectifs impérialistes. Pendant ce temps la Grande-Bretagne a prévu de diviser les propriétés de l'Empire ottoman au Moyen-Orient avec la France dans des négociations secrètes, En 1916, les représentants des Britanniques et des Français, Sir MarkSykes et François George Picot concluent un accord secret, connu sous le nom d'accord Sykes-Picot, qui transforme le Moyen-Orient en zones d'influence et redessiné la carte de toute la région. DEDICATION To my parents for their love, endless support and encouragement To the memory of my brother Fateh I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Above all, I thank Allah, the almighty for having given me the strength and patience to complete this work. Glory and Praise be to Him. I am immensely indebted to my supervisor Dr Fatima Maameri for the guidance, direction and valuable advice. Without her patience and tolerance this humble work would have never seen light. My thanks also go to my husband and soulmate Abdelmalek Guerfa, to my brother and sisters: Ishak, Hanane and Wissem, to my nephews Med El Fateh and Taha El Amine, without forgetting my uncle Nemdil Salim, and my best friend Guerfa Ismahan. II TABLE OF CONTENTS General Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 Chapter I:Ottoman-English Relations: A Historical Background .................................... 4 Introduction: ...................................................................................................................... 4 1 Anglo-Turkish Encounters from the Middle Ages to the 18th Century: ................... 5 1.1 The Indirect Encounter at the Battle of Nicopolis, 1396:.............................................. 5 1.2 The Direct Encounter under Elizabeth I and the Levant Company: .............................. 6 2 The Ottomans, England, and the Regency of Algiers: ............................................ 12 2.1 Algiers and Corsairing: ................................................................................................ 12 2.2 The Impact of Corsairing on England: ......................................................................... 15 2.2.1 Under Queen Elizabeth I : ................................................................................... 15 2.2.2 Under James I: ..................................................................................................... 17 3 Ottoman-English Relations in the 19th Century: .................................................... 19 3.1 European-Ottoman Alliance in the Crimean War, 1853-1856: .................................. 19 3.2 Europeans Side-taking against the Ottoman Empire: ................................................. 21 Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter II:23The Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916 ............................................................ 23 Introduction: .................................................................................................................... 23 1 The Background: Internal and External Unrests: .................................................... 24 1.1 Internal Unrest: Domestic Reforms: ........................................................................... 24 1.2 The External Unrests: Ottomans in World War I: ....................................................... 27 2 The Arab Revolt: ..................................................................................................... 29 3 The Treason of Century: The Sykes-Picot Agreement: .......................................... 32 4 The Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Zionists: ........................................................ 37 Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................... 40 General Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 41 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 42 The Jewish Virtual Library, The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence (July 15 – August1916) ................................................................................................................................................. 52 IV 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION This study examines the history of diplomatic and commercial relations of Great British with the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century until the collapse of the latter at the beginning of the twentieth century. Particular emphasis is given to the Anglo- Turkish relations during the First World War,1914-1918. The thesis analyses British policies and negotiations that paved the way for the secret agreement of Sykes-Picot in 1916. Accordingly, Ottoman possessions in Middle East were partitioned amongst France and Britain into spheres of influence. In addition, it sheds some light on the Middle East areas after a century from signing the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The purpose of this thesis is to demonstrate the fact that today’s instability, civil wars and religious extremism in the Middle East regions is the result of the Sykes-Picot Agreement 1916. Importance: The centennial of the Sykes-Picot Agreement and its insuring consequences re- launched debate among historians and diverse analysts. Today, the Middle East regions suffer from chaos, instabilityand antagonisms. In fact, the borders drawn on a blank map of Middle East by British and French representatives Sir Mark Sykes and Francois Picot respectively bear no resemblance to the Middle East map of today. The political boundaries created by Sykes and Picot were set in accordance with the economic and strategic needs of the colonial powers without taking into consideration religious, ethnic or racial identities of the area. Consequently, this thesis considers British diplomacy that led to the signing of Sykes-Picot Agreement and to its consequences on the Middle East a century later. 2 Methodology and Sources: This research work examines the diplomatic history of Anglo-Ottoman relations from its early stages to the midst of the First World War in 1916.The methodused in this study is the descriptive-analytical. This research work is based on several and