Resource Scarcity and Social Identity in the Political Conflicts in Burundi by Elisabeth Naito Jengo Dissertation presented for the degree of Master of Political Science (International Studies) in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Promotor: Prof Pierre du Toit March 2013 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. November 2012 Copyright © 2013 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT Since Burundi gained independence in 1962, this country has experienced periods of mass communal violence. Extensive scholarly research has focused on exploring the factors behind, and the nature of, the conflicts in Burundi from a socio-ethnic perspective. There has, however, been a persistent lack of attention paid to the inextricable relationship between environmental factors; particularly the scarcity of resources, coupled with rapid population growth; and Burundi‘s recent history of internal conflict. Noteworthy explanatory factors, which are often ignored in literature on the environment and conflict, have thus motivated this study. Burundi is an example of this reality because of a highly dependent agricultural economy and a constant growing population. This study used a descriptive analysis, as methodological tool; in order to gain an understanding of Burundi‘s land question - that is, how limited access to land and the constantly increasing population have led to environmental degradation, that served as motivational trigger factors for the violent political conflicts that occurred at various periods between 1965 and 1993 in this country. This study addresses this epistemological gap. In order to explore the nexus between environmental factors, land access, population growth and the political conflicts in Burundi, this study draws and builds upon Jared Diamond‘s (2005) five point framework of potential trigger factors to environmental collapse. Moreover, Diamond‘s (2005) ecocide theory argues that there are eight specific indicators to demonstrate how societies undermine themselves by damaging their own environment; thus resulting in an ecocide. This theory was applied to the two main environmental variables examined in this study. More specifically, this theoretical perspective provided a base for exploring how land issues, population growth, environmental degradation and political change can be understood as important precursors to the violent conflicts in Burundi. What may be surmised by this study; is that there is indeed a positive correlation between these forces, where the values of the independent variables (land access and population growth) are associated with the values of the dependent variable (violent conflict). This correlation, therefore, calls for an acknowledgement of the complexity of the Burundian conflicts and that ethnicity which has dominated contemporary conflict analysis is but one of several social rifts. Key terms: Burundi, political conflict, environmental scarcity, land access and population growth ii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING Sedert Burundi in 1962 onafhanklikheid verkry het, het hierdie land periodes van massa gewelddadige politieke konflik ervaar. Uitgebreide wetenskaplike navorsing het daarop gefokus om die faktore agter die gebeure, sowel as die aard van die konflik in Burundi vanuit ‘n sosio-etniese perspektief, te ondersoek. Tog word daar steeds gebrekkige aandag geskenk aan die onlosmaaklike verhouding tussen omgewingsfaktore, veral gebrek aan hulpbronne, gepaardgaande met die voortgesette bevolkingsaanwas; asook Burundi se onlangse geskiedenis van interne konflik. Noemenswaardige gapings, wat dikwels in die verklarende literatuur geïgnoreer word, het dus hierdie studie gemotiveer. Burundi is ‘n voorbeeld van hierdie werklikheid omdat die land baie afhanklik van landbou is; as gevolg van die kontstante bevolkingsaanwas in die land. Hierdie navorsing het beskrywende analise as ‘n metodologiese instrument gebruik om insig te kry oor Burundi se grondkwessie – met ander woorde hoe die beperkte toegang tot grond en ‘n toenemende bevolkingsaanwas gelei het tot die agteruitgang van die omgewing. Bostaande faktore het as motiverende sneller faktore gedien, wat aanleiding gegee het tot die gewelddadige politieke konflik, wat gedurende verskillende periodes tussen 1965 en 1993 in hierdie land ontstaan het. Hierdie studie poog dus om hierdie epistomologiese gaping aan te spreek. Ten einde die verband (nexus) tussen omgewingsfaktore, grondbesit, bevolkingsaanwas en die politieke konflikte in Burundi te ondersoek, steun en bou hierdie studie voort op Jared Diamond (2005) se vyfpunt raamwerk van potensiële sneller faktore, wat lei tot omgewings ineenstorting. Verder beweer Diamond (2005) se omgewings uitwissing (ecocide) teorie dat daar agt spesifieke aanduidings is om te demonstreer hoe gemeenskappe hulself ondermyn deur hul eie omgewing te beskadig/vernietig: wat uitloop op omgewings uitwissing (ecocide). Hierdie teorie is aangewend in die twee hoof omgewings veranderlikes, wat in die studie/ navorsing ondersoek is. Hierdie teoretiese perspektief het ook spesifiek ‘n basis voorsien om te ondersoek hoe grondkwessies, bevolkingsaanwas, omgewings agteruitgang en politieke verandering verstaan kan word as belangrike aanwysers van die geweldadige konflik in Burundi. Deur middel van hierdie studie kan ‘n duidelike opsomming gemaak word dat daar inderdaad ‘n positiewe korrelasie tussen hierdie magte voorkom, waar die waardes van die onafhanklike veranderlike (toegang tot grond en bevolkingsgroei) geassosieer word met die waardes van die afhanklike veranderlike (geweldadige konflik). Hierdie korrelasie verg dus ‘n beroep om erkenning te gee aan die kompleksiteit van konflik in Burundi. Hierdie etniese debat, wat tans die oorheersende konflik aanvuur, is maar net een van die verskeie interpretasies van sosiale breekpunte in Burundi is. iii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Sleutelterme: Burundi, politieke konflik, gebrek in die omgewing, toegang tot grond en bevolkingsaanwas iv Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing this dissertation has been one of the most significant academic challenges I have ever encountered, and it has only been possible to complete with the support, advice and guidance from the following people. It is to you that I owe my deepest gratitude, who have made this dissertation possible and because of whom my academic journey has been one that I will cherish forever. I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to my supervisor, Prof. Pierre du Toit, who gave me the freedom to independently explore and at the same time the guidance to recover when my steps faltered. Thank you. I am also grateful to the administrative staff at the Department of Political Science, Tannie Magda and Jean Cilliers, for their assistance during my study. Thank you to the Department of Political Science, and the University of Stellenbosch, for allowing me to write this dissertation and providing me with the necessary resources in order to complete this study. Thank you to my dear friends, I cannot name you all, but you inspired my final effort despite the enormous work pressures we were facing together. I greatly value our friendship and I deeply appreciate your belief in me. Most importantly, none of this would have been possible without the love and support of my family. Thank you to my dear family, for their constant support, love and encouragement, despite being on the other side of the world. Your faith in me has motivated me to continue despite a challenging year we have experienced together. v Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated in loving memory of my dear brother, Abraham Wema Jengo (1984-2011), who passed away during the course of this study. Although, you are not able to see me through, your constant belief in me has been the greatest encouragement and I sincerely thank you for inspiring me to carry on. vi Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................................................. i Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... ii Opsomming ................................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements.. .................................................................................................................................. .v Dedication .................................................................................................................................................. vi Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures and Tables .........................................................................................................................