University of New Mexico UNM Digital Repository History ETDs Electronic Theses and Dissertations 8-19-2011 Dreams and Dust in the Black Hills: Race, Place, and National Identity in America's "Land of Promise" Elaine Marie Nelson Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/hist_etds Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Nelson, Elaine Marie. "Dreams and Dust in the Black Hills: Race, Place, and National Identity in America's "Land of Promise"." (2011). https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/hist_etds/58 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Electronic Theses and Dissertations at UNM Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in History ETDs by an authorized administrator of UNM Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. i ii ©2011, Elaine Marie Nelson iii DEDICATION I wish to dedicate this to my parents—and their parents—for instilling in me a deep affection for family, tradition, history, and home. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I do not remember our first family vacation. My sisters and I were so used to packing up and hitting the road in the family station wagon (later a minivan), that our childhood trips blur together. Oftentimes we visited our paternal grandparents in Sidney, Nebraska, or our maternal grandparents in Lincoln, Nebraska. But on special occasions we would take lengthy road trips that ended with destinations in the Appalachian Mountains, the Gulf of Mexico, Yellowstone National Park, and Myrtle Beach. As an ―East River‖ South Dakotan, driving six hours west to visit the Black Hills was hardly as exciting as going to the beach. Although we created fun car games (can you really hold your breath all the way across the Missouri River?) and enjoyed the buffalo at Al‘s Oasis, a weekend getaway in the Black Hills was not terribly unique or exotic. It was, in fact, a place that a majority of South Dakotans regularly visited. Although we were technically tourists, we were also ―local‖. Or were we? It was not until I became an adult and began studying the American West that I realized how significant the Black Hills region is to U.S. history. As a child, I did not understand that a raw myriad of issues involving Native American communities, the environment, and tourism were deeply embedded in my home state. In my years as a doctoral candidate, I jumped head-first into this project to try and untangle this web and gain a better understanding of the complex history of the Black Hills. I want to begin these acknowledgments by thanking my parents, Angie and Gayle Nelson, for showing me the world beyond South Dakota, for encouraging me to explore it, and for also giving me the opportunity to return home anytime I wanted. Moreover, thank you for supporting my goals and trusting my choices. I am also grateful to my v grandparents, Herb and Dorothy Nelson, for showing constant interest in all that I do. This achievement is even more exciting knowing that it is a proud moment for them, as well as for Lumir and Olga Hoffman. I only wish that the Hoffmans were here to help us celebrate. I have no doubt that Grandma would be ready with a fresh batch of Czech kolaches. No one deserves more recognition for the timely completion of this dissertation than Professor Margaret Connell-Szasz. During my years at the University of New Mexico she provided me with guidance and support necessary to my success in the program. I learned many things from Dr. Connell-Szasz‘s direction over the years. As the voice of reason, she exhibited unwavering patience, encouragement, and strength throughout my time as a doctoral student. Her knowledge of and dedication to the field of American Indian history influenced this project immensely. I feel very fortunate to have had the opportunity to work with both Professor Connell-Szasz and Professor Ferenc Morton Szasz—to take courses with them, endure comprehensive examinations with them, and draft my dissertation under their tutelage. I am grateful to them for showing me how to be an effective teacher, scholar, and citizen. Although Dr. Szasz was not present at the dissertation defense, he had a greater impact on me and on this project than, perhaps, he will ever know. My dissertation committee members played vital roles in my years in the Ph.D. program at UNM. Dr. Paul Andrew Hutton provided me with employment, institutional knowledge, and sage advice that sparked my intellectual curiosity and encouraged me to appreciate the American West in ways that I had not imagined possible. Thank you for giving me a job at the Western History Association and for teaching me some of the vi cardinal rules in life—cups need lids, mailing is not mindless, and pens like their caps. Professor Cathleen Cahill‘s energy was contagious. As a committee member she never failed to challenge me, to push my scholarship in new and daring directions, and to be bold and confident in my research and writing. Dr. Cahill deserves credit for serving as an amazing role model for me and other women in the historical profession. I am also very grateful to Professor Don Fixico, the ―outside‖ reader on my dissertation committee. He was a constant source of support to me and this project. Dr. Fixico‘s keen insight into the field of Native American history improved this dissertation tremendously. He has a way of asking questions that lead one to discovering unexpected conclusions. Other UNM faculty and staff played roles in my years as a doctoral student. First, I am thoroughly convinced that none of the history doctoral students would graduate were it not for the efficiency and organization of the department‘s administrative staff. Yolanda Martinez, Dana Ellison, Helen Ferguson, and Barbara Wafer were always so helpful and patient. I also enjoyed getting to know Linda Kay Norris and Cindy Tyson. They provided me with invaluable information during my years as a graduate assistant for the WHA and Center for the Southwest. At the University of New Mexico Press, Clark Whitehorn, Maya Allen-Gallegos, and Elizabeth Albright taught me about the world of academic publishing. Professors Tim Moy, Virginia Scharff, Sam Truett, Durwood Ball, Andrew K. Sandoval-Strausz, and Pat Risso demonstrated resiliency in their work ethic and devotion to the UNM history department and its students. The graduate student community at UNM made my six years in the southwest more enjoyable. First, I must recognize the original members of the ―D-House‖—B. Erin Cole, Meg Frisbee, and Sarah E. M. Grossman—also known as the founding members of vii the M. Austin fan club. Thanks also to Lincoln Bramwell for being a steadfast friend and mentor from the first day I arrived on campus. It was so fun getting to know Jason Strykowski, Sonia Dickey, Kent Blansett, Shawn Wiemann, Colin Snider, Chris Steinke, Erik Loomis, Scott Meredith, Katie McIntyre, Alden Big Man, Richard Sanchez, Heather Hawkins, Jacobo Baca, Brian Luna Lucero, Jim Ersfeld, Ben Reed, Jerry Wallace, Rebecca Vanucci, Bryan Turo, Robin Walden, Donna Peterson, Ramona Caplan, Abe Santillanes, Becky Ellis, Sue Schuurman, Jeff Pearson, and David Corcoran. Whether in the classroom, planning the ―H.A.H.A.‖ symposium, or at Two Fools Tavern, I learned so much from your experiences and friendships. I continue to value the relationships I have developed with people outside of New Mexico. I hold strong admiration for Leisl Carr Childers and Michael Childers, two of the best comrades I could have hoped for. Kurt Kinbacher, David Nesheim, Adam Kane, Matt Deepe, Akim Reinhardt, Nathan Sanderson, Brian S Collier, Shannon Smith, María Muñoz, Steven Sexton, and Denehsa Alexander are wonderful friends and constant sources of motivation. I am in awe of each and every one of you. I could not have even started my research were it not for the expertise of Ken Stewart and Nancy Tystand Koupal at the South Dakota State Historical Society. You were both so hospitable to me during my tenure in Pierre, and I look forward to my return! I am also in great debt to Jace DeCory, Suzanne Dixon, and Donovin Sprague who lent their time, knowledge, and expertise to me. Mike Runge at the Deadwood City Archives was patient as I flipped slowly through the boxes of materials at the City of Deadwood Historic Preservation Office. After David Wolff politely entertained my initial idea of doing a ―complete history‖ of the Black Hills, he and Suzanne Julin offered me viii support and a list of valuable contacts. I was delighted to work with Tom Farrell at the Wind Cave National Park Library. His willingness to open their archives for me proved to be very worthwhile. Many thanks also to Arlette Hansen (Adams House and Museum curator), Deborah Gangloff (Days of ‘76 Museum), Doris Peterson (University of South Dakota Special Collections), Bobi Sago (Black Hills State University Case Library for Western Historical Studies), and the staff of the Custer County Courthouse, Rapid City Public Library, City of Hot Springs Library, and Deadwood City Library. I am especially thankful to Ann Massmann, my UNM-Mellon Mentor, for being so gracious and supportive of me and my work on the Black Hills. I value all of our conversations about the field of Native American Studies—where it has been and where it is going in the future. Most of all, it was so fun to get to know Ann and I look forward to continuing our dialogue in the future! Peter Blodgett was most helpful at the Huntington Library and a very enjoyable companion at the coffee cart.