Tourism Governance for Sustainable Heritage Tourism in Sri Lankan Heritage Destinations Sivesan Sivanandamoorthy This thesis is submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Education and Arts Federation University Australia Ballarat, Victoria Australia Submitted in December 2016 ABSTRACT This thesis investigates tourism governance models for sustainable heritage tourism in Kandy, a world heritage city situated in central Sri Lanka. Additionally, it explains how the success of sustainable heritage tourism has underpinned sustainable livelihoods development from a socio-cultural perspective. The main objective is to find, identify and assess the influence of tourism governance on sustainable heritage tourism in Sri Lanka. Stemming from this approach is the development of a tourism governance model for sustainable heritage tourism in Kandy. This thesis is intended as a response to the challenges of adopting a sustainable livelihoods development approach. Accordingly, it investigates the role sustainable heritage tourism plays in host community development within the context of sociocultural, economic and environmental aspects in Kandy. Employing a qualitative methodological approach, this thesis is underpinned by an interpretive research philosophy. Research data was collected through field-based in- country interviews and open-ended questionnaires as this approach allowed respondents to offer more information and to include their feelings, attitudes and understanding of the subject. Research results from in-country fieldwork reveal that tourism governance models have a major influence on the viability of sustainable heritage tourism at Sri Lankan heritage destinations. Macro-scale and micro-scale factors were found to be influential in tourism governance models. Additionally, sustainable heritage tourism was found to be a persuasive factor in host community development. ii Research from this thesis provides policy recommendations and potential management frameworks for tourism practitioners and policy makers. These insights into Kandy and other Sri Lankan heritage localities enable improvement of tourism governance systems and sustainable heritage tourism. iii STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been relied upon or used without due acknowledgement in the main text and bibliography of the thesis. Signed: Signed: ________________ Dated: 16.08.2017 Dated: Sivesan Sivanandamoorthy Professor Keir Reeves Candidate Principal Supervisor iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am extremely grateful to my primary supervisor Professor Keir Reeves, not only for his productive feedback and invaluable guidance, but also for his patience, motivation and friendship throughout the supervision of this research. I am indebted to my associate supervisors, Professor Andrew Reeves and Dr. Tim Harrison for their support in this research. Special thanks goes to Dr. Jolanta Nowak, Administrative Officer, Collaborative Research Centre in Australian History (CRCAH) and my PhD colleagues in the CRCAH – Dr. Megan Ponsford, David McGinniss, Kirsty Marshall and Ember Parkin – for their continued encouragement and support for my research. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the Australian Government and to Federation University Australia for providing the two scholarships that enabled me to undertake my funded PhD research programme in Victoria. Thanks also to Ann Dillon and Jane Kolotelo for their invaluable assistance. I also express my sincere thanks to the University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka that generously provided study leave for me to undertake this research. I am indebted to the respondents. All enthusiastically participated in this research project and offered crucial insights and perspectives. Without their contribution this PhD could not have been completed. Special thanks go to the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. Thanks also to the Hon. John Amarathunga, Minister of Tourism Development and Christian Religious Affairs and also to the Hon. Vijayakala Maheswaran, Minister of Child Affairs who provided permission to collect in-country data for this research. I hope that this thesis provides valuable suggestions v and strategies to further develop the tourism industry in Sri Lanka. Thanks to each of them for allowing me to delve into a new area of research, the use of governance models in tourism research in Sri Lanka. Finally, I express my thanks to my wife Kajenthini Sivesan for the burden she had in taking care of our children in my absence, and the support she gave me for the completion of my doctoral dissertation and to my children Shivanki and Siranjeev for the patience and understanding they showed through the challenges of understanding my doctoral dissertation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures……………………………………………………………….... xii Abstract ……………………………………………………………………… ii Statement of Authorship …………………………………………………….. iv Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………….. v Introduction Background of Study ………………………………………………………… 1 Country Research Context……………………………………………………. 7 Kandy: World Heritage City and Cultural Tourism Destination……………… 10 The Tourism Industry in Kandy……………………………………………..... 11 Research Questions……………………………………………………………. 13 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………….. 13 The Tourism Industry in Sri Lanka…………………………………………… 15 Employment Generation ……………………………………………………… 23 The Tourism Market …………………………………………………………. 26 Top Ten Tourist Destinations in Sri Lanka ………………………………….. 27 Contribution of Thesis 28 Thesis Outline……………………………………………………………...... 29 Chapter One – Research Methodology 1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 33 1.2 Research Paradigm ……………………………………………………….. 33 1.3 Research Philosophy …………………………………………………….. 35 1.4 Research Methods and Justification of Research Methods ……………… 37 1.5 Data Collection Methods and Sampling Techniques…………………….. 39 1.6 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………. 46 1.7 Validity …………………………………………………………………… 47 1.8 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 49 vii Chapter Two – Literature Review 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………….. 50 2.2 Governance …………………………………………………………….. 51 2.3 Macro and Micro-scale Factors in Tourism Governance ………………. 55 2.4 Governance Debates in Tourism Policy and Regulation………………… 59 2.5 Role of Stakeholders in Tourism Governance …………………………… 61 2.6 Community Participation in Tourism …………………………………….. 63 2.7 Necessity of Governance for Heritage …………………………………… 64 2.8 Sustainable Heritage Tourism……………………………………………... 66 2.9 Heritage Tourism …………………………………………………………. 67 2.10 Sustainable Tourism …………………………………………………… 71 2.10.1 Economic and Livelihood Considerations…………………………… 78 2.10.2 Social Issues …………………………………………………………. 80 2.10.3 Environmental Considerations ………………………………………. 81 2.11 Importance of Sustainable Tourism …………………………………… 82 2.12 Challenges of Sustainable Heritage Tourism………………………….. 83 2. 13 Tourism Governance and Sustainable Heritage Tourism ……………. 85 2.14 Conceptualization Framework ………………………………………… 87 2.15 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 92 Chapter Three – Historical Background of Kandy 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 94 3.2 The Historical Background ………………………………………………. 95 3.2.1 Pre-Colonial Era Kandy ……………..…………………………………. 95 3.2.2 British and Kandyan Kingdom ……………………………………….. 103 3.3 Heritage Destinations in Kandy …………………………………………. 110 3.3.1 The Dalada Maligawa and Royal Palace of Kandy …………………… 113 3.3.3 Udawatta Kelle Sanctuary ……………………………………………… 117 3.3.4 Saint Paul’s Church and the Ampitiya Seminary …………………….. 119 viii 3.3.5 The Royal Botanical Garden – Peradeniya ……………………………. 120 3.3.6 The University of Peradeniya …………………………………………. 121 3.3.6 The Queen’s Hotel …………………………………………………….. 122 3.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 123 Chapter Four – Kandyan Cultural Heritage 4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………… 125 4.2 Kandyan Architecture and Art……………………………………. 126 4.3 Preservation and Revitalization of the Kandyan Cultural Heritage ………. 134 4.3.1 Contributions of Institutions in Preservation of Cultural Heritage ……... 138 4.3.2 Revitalization of Cultural heritage …………………………………….... 143 4.4 Contributions of Kandyan Heritage …………………………………….… 144 4.4.1 Economic Contribution ……………………………………………….… 145 4.4.2 Political and Religious Identity ………………………………………… 146 4.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………... 147 Chapter Five – Kandyan Intangible Heritage 5.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 149 5.2 Identity through Ethnicity and Religion ………………………………….. 149 5.3 The Sociocultural Aspect of Kandy……………………………………. 153 5.4 Traditional Foods and Beverages………………………………………… 155 5.5 Arts and Handicraft ……………………………………………………… 157 5.6 Festivals ………………………………………………………………….. 162 5.6.1 Vesak …………………………………………………………………… 162 5.6.2 Kandy Perahara ………………………………………………….……… 163 5.6.3 Tamil and Sinhala New Year……………………………………………. 166 5.6.4 Alutsal ………………………………………...………………………… 167 5.7 The Kandyan Dance ……………………………………………………… 167 5.8 Heritage Industries in Kandy ……………………………………….…….. 168 5.8 Conclusion ……………………………………………………….……….. 173 ix Chapter Six – Contemporary Tourism in Sri Lanka 6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….………………. 175 6.2 Contemporary Tourism in Sri Lanka …………………..…………………. 175 6.2.1 Infrastructure Facilities ………………………...………………………. 176 6.2.2 Information Centre …………………………………...………….