Supporting Environmental Stewardship and Livelihood Benefits in Ontario’s Greenbelt: Assessing the Potential Contribution of the Alternative Land Use Services Program by Bruce F. Mackenzie A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies in Environment and Resource Studies Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2008 © Bruce F. Mackenzie 2008 Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final versions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract Ontario’s Greenbelt is key to the region’s sustainability and plays an important role in stopping urban sprawl, preserving agricultural land and maintaining ecological goods and services. However, there have been concerns expressed in the literature and by non-government organizations that the Greenbelt legislation, on its own, will not ensure the viability of the farming economy in this region, or ensure adequate ecological stewardship. These concerns point to the need for other programs and policies to complement the Greenbelt legislation, and to help ensure that the goals of the Greenbelt are met. This research study assesses the potential of the Alternative Land Use Services Program (ALUS) as a tool for promoting agricultural viability and associated land stewardship in Ontario’s Greenbelt. An Alternative Land Use Services program would pay farmers for the provision of environmental services in the public interest. Using a qualitative methodological approach based on a literature review, a review of government and non-government organization documents and interviews with key stakeholders, this study compares the potential contribution of the ALUS program with that of other reasonable alternatives currently available to promote farmland protection and farm stewardship. The research also provides an analytical framework and a comprehensive set of criteria for selection and design of programs in support of sustainable agriculture in the Greenbelt. The primary research findings indicate that an ALUS program in the Greenbelt, established as a stand-alone regional project or as part of a provincial or national program, could help to strengthen the Greenbelt’s roles in stopping urban sprawl, preserving agricultural land and maintaining ecological goods and services. The ALUS concept and means of applying it could also play an important role in discussions regarding how to support the farm economy and rural communities in the Greenbelt. ALUS may be particularly appropriate as a means of enhancing the economic and ecological aspects of peri-urban agriculture. One of the thesis conclusions is that while ALUS could play a positive role in the Greenbelt, the program would be insufficient if it were applied on its own. ALUS will need to be packaged with a suite of existing programs that would be able to complement ALUS and address some of its weakness in order to make a stronger contribution. This research has identified new opportunities to promote land stewardship and enhance livelihoods in the agricultural sector as well as a new agenda for sustainable agriculture in the Greenbelt. More generally, the framework for analysis that was applied in this research has a broader applicability and usefulness in sustainability-based decision making processes. The approach outlines how sustainability assessments might specify sustainability considerations and integrate them together in particular applications. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my thesis supervisor, Professor Robert Gibson, Department of Environment and Resource Studies, University of Waterloo, for his feedback and guidance along the way, for encouraging me and for helping me to develop my abilities as a scholar. I would like to thank all of the key informants who participated in this research study, who so generously gave of their time and expertise in order to enrich the dialogue about these important issues. I would also like to thank my thesis committee members, Dr. Jennifer Clapp, Department of Environment and Resource Studies, University of Waterloo, and Dr. Alison Blay-Palmer, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Wilfred Laurier University, for their valuable perspectives and comments on my work. Thank you, also, to Dr. Mary Louise McAllister for providing guidance in the early stages of developing my thesis proposal, and for listening to my concerns along the way. I would like to thank Debbe Crandall, Executive Director of the Save the Oak Ridges Moraine Coalition, and Dr. Brendon Larson, for giving me the opportunity to work on a number of exciting projects, allowing me to make a living during my life as a student. And finally, a special thank you to my wife, Linda Ryan, for her patience, encouragement and unconditional support, and for being there to talk to every step of the way. I couldn’t have done it without you. iv Table of Contents List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………x Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..1 1.1 Thesis Agenda……………………………………….. ………………………………………..1 1.2 Rationale for Current Study……………………………………………………………………1 1.3 Ontario’s Greenbelt………………………………………………………………………….....2 1.4 Limitations of the Greenbelt…………………………………………………………………...2 1.5 The Role of Agri-Environmental Payments in Building a Sustainable Agricultural Economy in Ontario’s Greenbelt………………………………………………………………………...........5 1.6 Purpose and Research Question………………………………………………………………..7 1.7 Academic Justification and Contribution to the Study of the Academic Literature…………...8 1.8 Applied Contribution and Significance………………………………………………………..9 1.9 Methodology……………………………………………………………………………….....10 1.10 Thesis Outline……………………………………………………………………………….12 Chapter 2 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..14 2.1 Introduction to Methodology…………………………………………………………………14 2.2 Development of Evaluation Framework and Criteria………………………………………...14 2.3 Interviews……………………………………………………………………………………..16 2.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation……………………………………………………………..17 2.5 Case Studies…………………………………………………………………………………..17 2.6 Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………18 2.7 Reliability, Validity and Generalizability…………………………………………………….19 2.8 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………...20 Chapter 3 Literature Review……………………………………………………………………...21 3.1 Introduction to Literature Review…………………………………………………………….21 3.2 Sustainability………………………………………………………………………………….21 3.3 Requirements for Progress Towards Sustainability…………………………………………..22 3.4 Socio-Ecological System Integrity…………………………………………………………...22 3.5 Livelihood Sufficiency and Opportunity……………………………………………………..23 3.6 Ecological Goods and Services……………………………………………………………….26 v 3.7 The Value of Ecosystem Services…………………………………………………………….27 3.8 Protecting Ecosystem Services: Economic Versus Regulatory Tools………………………..29 3.9 Creating Markets for Ecosystem Services……………………………………………………30 3.10 Payments for Environmental Services………………………………………………………31 3.11 Valuation Versus Incentives……………………………………………………………. ….32 3.12 Rewards for Ecological Goods and Services in Agriculture………………………………...33 3.13 Direct Payments in Canada………………………………………………………………….34 Literature Review Part II: Food Systems…………………………………………………………35 3.14 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….35 3.15 The Internationalized Agro-Industrial Food Economy……………………………………...36 3.16 The Costs of Improvement…………………………………………………………………..37 3.17 Defining Sustainable Agriculture…………………………………………………………...40 3.18 Sustainable Agriculture as Alternative Agriculture…………………………………………42 3.19 A Systems Approach to Farm Management………………………………………………...43 3.20 From Sustainable Agriculture to Sustainable Food Systems………………………………..44 3.21 Sustainable Agriculture in Peri-Urban Areas………………………………………………..46 3.22 Preserving Agriculture in Peri-Urban Areas………………………………………………...49 3.23 Chapter Summary…………………………………………………………………………...52 Chapter 4 Description of the Alternative Land Use Services (ALUS) Concept…………………54 4.1 The Alternative Land Use Services Concept………………………………………………...54 4.2 ALUS Pilot Projects in Canada………………………………………………………………56 Chapter 5 Establishing Means of Farmland Protection and Farm Stewardship………………….58 5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...58 5.2 Farmland Protection Tools……………………………………………………………………58 5.2.1 Farmland Protection Tools Generally Used at the State or Provincial Level……...58 5.2.1.1 Agricultural District Programs…………………………………………..58 5.2.1.2 Greenbelts……………………………………………………………….59 5.2.1.3 Conservation Easements………………………………………………...60 5.2.1.4 Purchase of Agricultural Conservation Easement Programs……………61 5.2.1.5 Right-To-Farm Laws……………………………………………………62 5.2.16 Tax Relief through Differential Assessment Laws………………………62 5.2.1.7 Income Tax and Property Tax Incentives……………………………….63 vi 5.2.1.8 Provincial Planning Laws and Associated Regulations, Policies and Guidelines……………………………………………………………………….63 5.2.1.9 Special Provincial Planning Initiatives – the Greenbelt and Grow Management…………………………………………………………………….64 5.2.2 Programs Enacted at the Local Level……………………………………………...65 5.2.2.1 Agricultural District Zoning…………………………………………….65 5.2.2.2 Transfer of Development Rights………………………………………..66 5.2.2.3 Land Stewardship Programs…………………………………………….67 5.2.2.4 Land Trusts……………………………………………………………...68 5.3. Agro-Environmental Programs……………………………………………..68 5.4 Farm Assistance Tools………………………………………………………………………..72